Deviance (sociology) - Wikipedia

Deviance or the sociology of deviance explores the actions and/or behaviors that violate social norms across formally enacted rules (e.g., crime) as well as ... Deviance(sociology) FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Actionorbehaviorthatviolatessocialnorms "Deviant"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeDeviant(disambiguation). PartofaseriesonSociology History Outline Index Keythemes Society Globalization Humanbehavior Humanenvironmentalimpact Identity Industrialrevolutions3&4 Socialcomplexity Socialconstruct Socialenvironment Socialequality Socialequity Socialpower Socialstratification Socialstructure Perspectives Conflicttheory Criticaltheory Structuralfunctionalism Positivism Socialconstructionism Symbolicinteractionism Branches Aging Architecture Art Astrosociology Body Criminology Consciousness Culture Death Demography Deviance Disaster Economic Education Emotion(Jealousy) Environmental Family Feminist Fiscal Food Gender Generations Health Historical Immigration Industrial Internet Jewry Knowledge Language Law Leisure Literature Marxist Mathematic Medical Military Music Peace,war,andsocialconflict Philosophy Political Public Punishment Raceandethnicity Religion Rural Science(Historyofscience) Socialmovements Socialpsychology Sociocybernetics Sociology Space Sport Technology Terrorism Urban Utopian Victimology Visual Methods Quantitative Qualitative Comparative Computational Ethnographic Conversationanalysis Historical Interview Mathematical Networkanalysis Socialexperiment Survey PeopleEastAsia 1900s FeiXiaotong SouthAsia 1800s G.SGhurye 1900s IrawatiKarve M.N.Srinivas MiddleEast 1400s IbnKhaldun Europe 1700s AugusteComte EmmanuelJosephSieyès 1800s ÉmileDurkheim HarrietMartineau KarlMarx GeorgSimmel HerbertSpencer FerdinandTönnies MaxWeber 1900s MichelFoucault JürgenHabermas NorthAmerica 1800s JaneAddams ErnestBurgess W.E.B.DuBois GeorgeHerbertMead ThorsteinVeblen 1900s JamesColeman PatriciaHillCollins ErvingGoffman PaulLazarsfeld CharlesWrightMills RobertK.Merton ThedaSkocpol DorothyE.Smith Lists Bibliography Terminology Journals Organizations People Timeline Bycountry  Societyportal WikiProjectSociologyvte Criminologyandpenology Theory Anomie Biosocialcriminology Brokenwindows Collectiveefficacy Crimeanalysis Criminalization Differentialassociation Deviance Expressivefunctionoflaw Labelingtheory Psychopathy Rationalchoice Risk&actuarialcriminology Socialcontrol Socialdisorganization Sociallearning Strain Subculture Symbolicinteractionism Victimology Typesofcrime Againsthumanity Againsttheperson Againstthestate Blue-collar Corporate Juvenile Organized Political Public-order State State-corporate Victimless White-collar War Methods Comparative Profiling Criticaltheory Ethnography UniformCrimeReports Crimemapping Positivistschool Qualitative Quantitative BJS NIBRS Penology Denunciation Deterrence Incapacitation Trial Prison abolition open reform Prisoner Prisonerabuse Prisoners'rights Rehabilitation Recidivism Justiceinpenology Participatory Restorative Retributive Solitaryconfinement Schools Anarchistcriminology Chicagoschool Classicalschool Conflictcriminology Criticalcriminology Environmentalcriminology Feministschool Integrativecriminology Italianschool Leftrealism Marxistcriminology Neo-classicalschool Positivistschool Postmodernistschool Rightrealism Subfields American Anthropological Biosocialcriminology Conflict Criminology Critical Culture Cyber Demography Development Environmental Experimental Organizational Political Public Radicalcriminology Browse Index Journals Organizations People vte Devianceorthesociologyofdeviance[1][2]explorestheactionsand/orbehaviorsthatviolatesocialnormsacrossformallyenactedrules(e.g.,crime)[3]aswellasinformalviolationsofsocialnorms(e.g.,rejectingfolkwaysandmores).Althoughdeviancemayhaveanegativeconnotation,theviolationofsocialnormsisnotalwaysanegativeaction;positivedeviationexistsinsomesituations.Althoughanormisviolated,abehaviorcanstillbeclassifiedaspositiveoracceptable.[4] Socialnormsdifferthroughoutsocietyandbetweencultures.Acertainactorbehaviourmaybeviewedasdeviantandreceivesanctionsorpunishmentswithinonesocietyandbeseenasanormalbehaviourinanothersociety.Additionally,asasociety'sunderstandingofsocialnormschangesovertime,sotoodoesthecollectiveperceptionofdeviance.[5] Devianceisrelativetotheplacewhereitwascommittedortothetimetheacttookplace.Killinganotherhumanisgenerallyconsideredwrongforexample,exceptwhengovernmentspermititduringwarfareorforself-defense.Therearetwotypesofmajordeviantactions:malainseandmalaprohibita. Contents 1Types 2Theories 2.1Structural-functionalism 2.1.1Durkheim'snormativetheoryofsuicide 2.1.2Merton'sstraintheory 2.2Symbolicinteraction 2.2.1Sutherland'sdifferentialassociation 2.2.2Neutralizationtheory 2.2.3Labelingtheory 2.2.4Primaryandsecondarydeviation 2.2.5Brokenwindowstheory 2.2.6Controltheory 2.3Conflicttheory 2.3.1KarlMarx 2.3.2MichelFoucault 2.3.3Biologicaltheoriesofdeviance 2.4Othertheories 3Thecriminaljusticesystem 4Seealso 5Notes 6Furtherreading 7Externallinks Types[edit] Theviolationofnormscanbecategorizedastwoforms,formaldevianceandinformaldeviance.Formaldeviancecanbedescribedasacrime,whichviolateslawsinasociety.Informaldevianceareminorviolationsthatbreakunwrittenrulesofsociallife.Normsthathavegreatmoralsignificancearemores.Underinformaldeviance,amoreopposessocietaltaboos.[6] Tabooisastrongsocialformofbehaviorconsidereddeviantbyamajority.Tospeakofitpubliclyiscondemned,andtherefore,almostentirelyavoided.Theterm“taboo”comesfromtheTonganword“tapu”meaning"underprohibition","notallowed",or"forbidden".Someformsoftabooareprohibitedunderlawandtransgressionsmayleadtoseverepenalties.Otherformsoftabooresultinshame,disrespectandhumiliation.Tabooisnotuniversalbutdoesoccurinthemajorityofsocieties.Someoftheexamplesincludemurder,rape,incest,orchildmolestation. HowardBecker,alabelingtheorist,identifiedfourdifferenttypesofdeviantbehaviorlabelswhicharegivenas: "Falselyaccusing"anindividual-othersperceivetheindividualtobeobtainingobedientordeviantbehaviors. "Puredeviance",othersperceivetheindividualasparticipatingindeviantandrule-breakingbehavior. "Conforming",othersperceivetheindividualtobeparticipatinginthesocialnormsthataredistributedwithinsocieties. "Secretdeviance"whichiswhentheindividualisnotperceivedasdeviantorparticipatinginanyrule-breakingbehaviors. Theories[edit] Deviantactscanbeassertionsofindividualityandidentity,andthusasrebellionagainstgroupnormsofthedominantcultureandinfavorofasub-culture.Inasociety,thebehaviorofanindividualoragroupdetermineshowadeviantcreatesnorms.[7] Threebroadsociologicalclassesexistthatdescribedeviantbehavior,namely,structuralfunctionalism,symbolicinteractionandconflicttheory. Structural-functionalistunderstandingofdeviance Structural-functionalism[edit] Mainarticle:Structuralfunctionalism Structuralfunctionalistsareconcernedwithhowvariousfactorsinasocietycometogetherandinteracttoformthewhole.Mostnotable,theworkofÉmileDurkheimandRobertMertonhavecontributedtotheFunctionalistideals.[8] Durkheim'snormativetheoryofsuicide[edit] Mainarticle:Suicide(Durkheimbook) ÉmileDurkheimwouldclaimthatdeviancewasinfactanormalandnecessarypartofsocialorganization.[3]Hewouldstatefourimportantfunctionsofdeviance: "Devianceaffirmsculturalvaluesandnorms.Anydefinitionofvirtuerestsonanopposingideaofvice:Therecanbenogoodwithoutevilandnojusticewithoutcrime."[3] Deviancedefinesmoralboundaries,peoplelearnrightfromwrongbydefiningpeopleasdeviant. Aseriousformofdevianceforcespeopletocometogetherandreactinthesamewayagainstit. Deviancepushessociety'smoralboundarieswhich,inturnleadstosocialchange. Whensocialdevianceiscommitted,thecollectiveconscienceisoffended.Durkheim(1897)describesthecollectiveconscienceasasetofsocialnormsbywhichmembersofasocietyfollow.[8]Withoutthecollectiveconscience,therewouldbenoabsolutemoralsfollowedininstitutionsorgroups. Socialintegrationistheattachmenttogroupsandinstitutions,whilesocialregulationistheadherencetothenormsandvaluesofsociety.Durkheim'stheoryattributessocialdeviancetoextremesofsocialintegrationandsocialregulation.Hestatedfourdifferenttypesofsuicidefromtherelationshipbetweensocialintegrationandsocialregulation:[8]. Altruisticsuicideoccurswhenoneistoosociallyintegrated. Egoisticsuicideoccurswhenoneisnotverysociallyintegrated. Anomicsuicideoccurswhenthereisverylittlesocialregulationfromasenseofaimlessnessordespair.  Fatalisticsuicideoccurswhenapersonexperiencestoomuchsocialregulation. Merton'sstraintheory[edit] Mainarticle:Straintheory(sociology) RobertK.Mertondiscusseddevianceintermsofgoalsandmeansaspartofhisstrain/anomietheory.WhereDurkheimstatesthatanomieistheconfoundingofsocialnorms,Mertongoesfurtherandstatesthatanomieisthestateinwhichsocialgoalsandthelegitimatemeanstoachievethemdonotcorrespond.Hepostulatedthatanindividual'sresponsetosocietalexpectationsandthemeansbywhichtheindividualpursuedthosegoalswereusefulinunderstandingdeviance.Specifically,heviewedcollectiveactionasmotivatedbystrain,stress,orfrustrationinabodyofindividualsthatarisesfromadisconnectionbetweenthesociety'sgoalsandthepopularlyusedmeanstoachievethosegoals.Often,non-routinecollectivebehavior(rioting,rebellion,etc.)issaidtomapontoeconomicexplanationsandcausesbywayofstrain.Thesetwodimensionsdeterminetheadaptationtosocietyaccordingtotheculturalgoals,whicharethesociety'sperceptionsabouttheideallife,andtotheinstitutionalizedmeans,whicharethelegitimatemeansthroughwhichanindividualmayaspiretotheculturalgoals.[9] Mertondescribed5typesofdevianceintermsoftheacceptanceorrejectionofsocialgoalsandtheinstitutionalizedmeansofachievingthem:[3] Innovationisaresponseduetothestraingeneratedbyourculture'semphasisonwealthandthelackofopportunitiestogetrich,whichcausespeopletobe"innovators"byengaginginstealingandsellingdrugs.Innovatorsacceptsociety'sgoals,butrejectsociallyacceptablemeansofachievingthem.(e.g.:monetarysuccessisgainedthroughcrime).Mertonclaimsthatinnovatorsaremostlythosewhohavebeensocialisedwithsimilarworldviewstoconformists,butwhohavebeendeniedtheopportunitiestheyneedtobeabletolegitimatelyachievesociety'sgoals. Conformistsacceptsociety'sgoalsandthesociallyacceptablemeansofachievingthem(e.g.:monetarysuccessisgainedthroughhardwork).Mertonclaimsthatconformistsaremostlymiddle-classpeopleinmiddleclassjobswhohavebeenabletoaccesstheopportunitiesinsocietysuchasabettereducationtoachievemonetarysuccessthroughhardwork. Ritualismreferstotheinabilitytoreachaculturalgoalthusembracingtherulestothepointwherethepeopleinquestionlosesightoftheirlargergoalsinordertofeelrespectable.Ritualistsrejectsociety'sgoals,butacceptsociety'sinstitutionalisedmeans.Ritualistsaremostcommonlyfoundindead-end,repetitivejobs,wheretheyareunabletoachievesociety'sgoalsbutstilladheretosociety'smeansofachievementandsocialnorms. Retreatismistherejectionofbothculturalgoalsandmeans,lettingthepersoninquestion"dropout".Retreatistsrejectthesociety'sgoalsandthelegitimatemeanstoachievethem.Mertonseesthemastruedeviants,astheycommitactsofdeviancetoachievethingsthatdonotalwaysgoalongwithsociety'svalues. Rebellionissomewhatsimilartoretreatism,becausethepeopleinquestionalsorejectboththeculturalgoalsandmeans,buttheygoonestepfurthertoa"counterculture"thatsupportsothersocialordersthatalreadyexist(rulebreaking).Rebelsrejectsociety'sgoalsandlegitimatemeanstoachievethem,andinsteadcreatesnewgoalsandmeanstoreplacethoseofsociety,creatingnotonlynewgoalstoachievebutalsonewwaystoachievethesegoalsthatotherrebelswillfindacceptable. Symbolicinteraction[edit] Mainarticle:Symbolicinteraction Symbolicinteractionreferstothepatternsofcommunication,interpretation,andadjustmentbetweenindividuals.Boththeverbalandnonverbalresponsesthatalistenerthendeliversaresimilarlyconstructedinexpectationofhowtheoriginalspeakerwillreact.Theongoingprocessislikethegameofcharades,onlyitisafull-fledgedconversation.[10] Theterm"symbolicinteractionism"hascomeintouseasalabelforarelativelydistinctiveapproachtothestudyofhumanlifeandhumanconduct.[11]Withsymbolicinteractionism,realityisseenassocial,developedinteractionwithothers.Mostsymbolicinteractionistsbelieveaphysicalrealitydoesindeedexistbyanindividual'ssocialdefinitions,andthatsocialdefinitionsdodevelopinpartorrelationtosomething“real.”Peoplethusdonotrespondtothisrealitydirectly,butrathertothesocialunderstandingofreality.Humansthereforeexistinthreerealities:aphysicalobjectivereality,asocialreality,andaunique.Auniqueisdescribedasathirdrealitycreatedoutofthesocialreality,aprivateinterpretationoftherealitythatisshowntothepersonbyothers.[12]Bothindividualsandsocietycannotbeseparatedfarfromeachotherfortworeasons.One,beingthatbotharecreatedthroughsocialinteraction,andtwo,onecannotbeunderstoodintermswithouttheother.Behaviorisnotdefinedbyforcesfromtheenvironmentsuchasdrives,orinstincts,butratherbyareflective,sociallyunderstoodmeaningofboththeinternalandexternalincentivesthatarecurrentlypresented.[13] HerbertBlumer(1969)setoutthreebasicpremisesoftheperspective:[11] "Humansacttowardthingsonthebasisofthemeaningstheyascribetothosethings;" "Themeaningofsuchthingsisderivedfrom,orarisesoutof,thesocialinteractionthatonehaswithothersandthesociety;"and "Thesemeaningsarehandledin,andmodifiedthrough,aninterpretativeprocessusedbythepersonindealingwiththethingshe/sheencounters;" Sutherland'sdifferentialassociation[edit] Mainarticle:Differentialassociation Inhisdifferentialassociationtheory,EdwinSutherlandpositedthatcriminalslearncriminalanddeviantbehaviorsandthatdevianceisnotinherentlyapartofaparticularindividual'snature.Whenanindividual'ssignificantothersengageindeviantand/orcriminalbehavior,criminalbehaviorwillbelearnedasaresulttothisexposure.[14]Hearguesthatcriminalbehaviorislearnedinthesamewaythatallotherbehaviorsarelearned,meaningthattheacquisitionofcriminalknowledgeisnotuniquecomparedtothelearningofotherbehaviors. Sutherlandoutlinedsomeverybasicpointsinhistheory,includingtheideathatthelearningcomesfromtheinteractionsbetweenindividualsandgroups,usingcommunicationofsymbolsandideas.Whenthesymbolsandideasaboutdeviationaremuchmorefavorablethanunfavorable,theindividualtendstotakeafavorableviewupondevianceandwillresorttomoreofthesebehaviors. Criminalbehavior(motivationsandtechnicalknowledge),aswithanyothersortofbehavior,islearned.Oneexampleofthiswouldbegangactivityininnercitycommunities.Sutherlandwouldfeelthatbecauseacertainindividual'sprimaryinfluentialpeersareinagangenvironment,itisthroughinteractionwiththemthatonemaybecomeinvolvedincrime.[14] Neutralizationtheory[edit] Mainarticle:Techniquesofneutralization GreshamSykesandDavidMatza'sneutralizationtheoryexplainshowdeviantsjustifytheirdeviantbehaviorsbyprovidingalternativedefinitionsoftheiractionsandbyprovidingexplanations,tothemselvesandothers,forthelackofguiltforactionsinparticularsituations. Therearefivetypesofneutralization:[15] Denialofresponsibility:thedeviantbelievess/hewashelplesslypropelledintothedeviance,andthatunderthesamecircumstances,anyotherpersonwouldresorttosimilaractions; Denialofinjury:thedeviantbelievesthattheactioncausednoharmtootherindividualsortothesociety,andthusthedevianceisnotmorallywrong; Denialofthevictim:thedeviantbelievesthatindividualsonthereceivingendofthedevianceweredeservingoftheresultsduetothevictim'slackofvirtueormorals; Condemnationofthecondemners:thedeviantbelievesenforcementfiguresorvictimshavethetendencytobeequallydeviantorotherwisecorrupt,andasaresult,arehypocritestostandagainst;and Appealtohigherloyalties:thedeviantbelievesthatthereareloyaltiesandvaluesthatgobeyondtheconfinesofthelaw;morality,friendships,income,ortraditionsmaybemoreimportanttothedeviantthanlegalboundaries. Labelingtheory[edit] Mainarticle:Labelingtheory FrankTannenbaumandHowardS.Beckercreatedanddevelopedthelabelingtheory,whichisacorefacetofsymbolicinteractionism,andoftenreferredtoasTannenbaum's"dramatizationofevil."Beckerbelievedthat"socialgroupscreatedeviancebymakingtheruleswhoseinfractionconstitutesdeviance". Labelingisaprocessofsocialreactionbythe"socialaudience,"whereinpeoplestereotypeothers,judgingandaccordinglydefining(labeling)someone'sbehaviorasdeviantorotherwise.Ithasbeencharacterizedasthe"invention,selection,manipulationofbeliefswhichdefineconductinanegativewayandtheselectionofpeopleintothesecategories."[16] Assuch,labelingtheorysuggeststhatdevianceiscausedbythedeviant'sbeinglabeledasmorallyinferior,thedeviant'sinternalizingthelabelandfinallythedeviant'sactingaccordingtothatspecificlabel(i.e.,anindividuallabelledas"deviant"willactaccordingly).Astimegoesby,the"deviant"takesontraitsthatconstitutedeviancebycommittingsuchdeviationsasconformtothelabel(sotheaudiencehasthepowertonotlabelthemandhavethepowertostopthedeviancebeforeiteveroccursbynotlabelingthem).Individualandsocietalpreoccupationwiththelabel,inotherwords,leadsthedeviantindividualtofollowaself-fulfillingprophecyofabidancetotheascribedlabel.[3] Thistheory,whileverymuchsymbolicallyinteractionist,alsohaselementsofconflicttheory,asthedominantgrouphasthepowertodecidewhatisdeviantandacceptable,andenjoysthepowerbehindthelabelingprocess.Anexampleofthisisaprisonsystemthatlabelspeopleconvictedoftheft,andbecauseofthistheystarttoviewthemselvesasbydefinitionthieves,incapableofchanging."Fromthispointofview,"HowardS.Beckerwrites:[17] Devianceisnotaqualityoftheactthepersoncommits,butratheraconsequenceoftheapplicationbyothersofrulesandsanctionstoan"offender".Thedeviantisonetowhomthelabelhassuccessfullybeenapplied;deviantbehaviorisbehaviorthatpeoplesolabel.[page needed] Inotherwords,"behavioronlybecomesdeviantorcriminalifdefinedandinterferedassuchbyspecificpeoplein[a]specificsituation."[18]Itisimportanttonotethesalientfactthatsocietyisnotalwayscorrectinitslabeling,oftenfalselyidentifyingandmisrepresentingpeopleasdeviants,orattributingtothemcharacteristicswhichtheydonothave.Inlegalterms,peopleareoftenwronglyaccused,yetmanyofthemmustlivewiththeensuantstigma(orconviction)fortherestoftheirlives. Onasimilarnote,societyoftenemploysdoublestandards,withsomesectorsofsocietyenjoyingfavouritism.Certainbehaviorsinonegroupareseentobeperfectlyacceptable,orcanbeeasilyoverlooked,butinanotherareseen,bythesameaudiences,asabominable. Themedicalizationofdeviance,thetransformationofmoralandlegaldevianceintoamedicalcondition,isanimportantshiftthathastransformedthewaysocietyviewsdeviance.[3]: 204 Thelabellingtheoryhelpstoexplainthisshift,asbehaviourthatusedtobejudgedmorallyarenowbeingtransformedintoanobjectiveclinicaldiagnosis.Forexample,peoplewithdrugaddictionsareconsidered"sick"insteadof"bad."[3]: 204  Primaryandsecondarydeviation[edit] EdwinLemertdevelopedtheideaofprimaryandsecondarydeviationasawaytoexplaintheprocessoflabeling.Primarydevianceisanygeneraldeviancebeforethedeviantislabeledassuchinaparticularway.Secondarydevianceisanyactionthattakesplaceafterprimarydevianceasareactiontotheinstitutionalidentificationofthepersonasadeviant.[3] Whenanactorcommitsacrime(primarydeviance),howevermild,theinstitutionwillbringsocialpenaltiesdownontheactor.However,punishmentdoesnotnecessarilystopcrime,sotheactormightcommitthesameprimarydevianceagain,bringingevenharsherreactionsfromtheinstitutions.Atthispoint,theactorwillstarttoresenttheinstitution,whiletheinstitutionbringsharsherandharsherrepression.Eventually,thewholecommunitywillstigmatizetheactorasadeviantandtheactorwillnotbeabletotoleratethis,butwillultimatelyaccepthisorherroleasacriminal,andwillcommitcriminalactsthatfittheroleofacriminal. Primaryandsecondarydeviationiswhatcausespeopletobecomehardercriminals.Primarydevianceisthetimewhenthepersonislabeleddeviantthroughconfessionorreporting.Secondarydevianceisdeviancebeforeandaftertheprimarydeviance.Retrospectivelabelinghappenswhenthedeviantrecognizeshisactsasdeviantaftertheprimarydeviance,whileprospectivelabelingiswhenthedeviantrecognizesfutureactsasdeviant.Thestepstobecomingacriminalare: Primarydeviation; Socialpenalties; Secondarydeviation; Strongerpenalties; Furtherdeviationwithresentmentandhostilitytowardspunishers; Communitystigmatizesthedeviantasacriminal; Tolerancethresholdpassed; Strengtheningofdeviantconductbecauseofstigmatizingpenalties;andfinally, Acceptanceasroleofdeviantorcriminalactor. Brokenwindowstheory[edit] Brokenwindowstheorystatesthatanincreaseinminorcrimessuchasgraffiti,wouldeventuallyleadtoandencourageanincreaseinlargertransgressions.Thissuggeststhatgreaterpolicingonminorformsofdeviancewouldleadtoadecreaseinmajorcrimes.ThetheoryhasbeentestedinavarietyofsettingsincludingNewYorkCityinthe90s.Comparedtothecountry'saverageatthetime,violentcrimeratesfell28percentasaresultofthecampaign.Criticsofthetheoryquestionthedirectcausalityofthepolicingandstatisticalchangesthatoccurred.[19] Controltheory[edit] Controltheoryadvancesthepropositionthatweakbondsbetweentheindividualandsocietyfreepeopletodeviate.Bycontrast,strongbondsmakedeviancecostly.Thistheoryaskswhypeoplerefrainfromdeviantorcriminalbehavior,insteadofwhypeoplecommitdeviantorcriminalbehavior,accordingtoTravisHirschi.Thecontroltheorydevelopedwhennormsemergetodeterdeviantbehavior.Withoutthis"control",deviantbehaviorwouldhappenmoreoften.Thisleadstoconformityandgroups.Peoplewillconformtoagroupwhentheybelievetheyhavemoretogainfromconformitythanbydeviance.Ifastrongbondisachievedtherewillbelesschanceofdeviancethanifaweakbondhasoccurred.Hirschiarguedapersonfollowsthenormsbecausetheyhaveabondtosociety.Thebondconsistsoffourpositivelycorrelatedfactors:opportunity,attachment,belief,andinvolvement.[3]: 204 Whenanyofthesebondsareweakenedorbrokenoneismorelikelytoactindefiance.MichaelGottfredsonandTravisHirschiin1990foundedtheirSelf-ControlTheory.Itstatedthatactsofforceandfraudareundertakeninthepursuitofself-interestandself-control.Adeviantactisbasedonacriminalsownself-controlofthemselves. ContainmenttheoryisconsideredbyresearcherssuchasWalterC.Recklesstobepartofthecontroltheorybecauseitalsorevolvesaroundthethoughtsthatstopindividualsfromengagingincrime.Recklessstudiedtheunfinishedapproachesmeanttoexplainthereasoningbehinddelinquencyandcrime.Herecognizedthatsocietaldisorganizationisincludedinthestudyofdelinquencyandcrimeundersocialdeviance,leadinghimtoclaimthatthemajorityofthosewholiveinunstableareastendnottohavecriminaltendenciesincomparisonthosewholiveinmiddle-classareas.Thisclaimopensupmorepossibleapproachestosocialdisorganization,andprovesthatthealreadyimplementedtheoriesareinneedoradeeperconnectiontofurtherexploreideasofcrimeanddelinquency.TheseobservationsbroughtRecklesstoaskquestionssuchas,"Whydosomepersonsbreakthroughthetottering(social)controlsandothersdonot?Whydorarecasesinwell-integratedsocietybreakthroughthelinesofstrongcontrols?"Recklessassertedthattheintercommunicationbetweenself-controlandsocialcontrolsarepartlyresponsibleforthedevelopmentofdelinquentthoughts.Socialdisorganizationwasnotrelatedtoaparticularenvironment,butinsteadwasinvolvedinthedeteriorationofanindividualssocialcontrols.Thecontainmenttheoryistheideathateveryonepossessesmentalandsocialsafeguardswhichprotecttheindividualfromcommittingactsofdeviancy.Containmentdependsontheindividualsabilitytoseparateinnerandoutercontrolsfornormativebehavior.[20] MorecontemporarycontroltheoristssuchasRobertCrutchfieldtakethetheoryintoanewlight,suggestinglabormarketexperiencesnotonlyaffecttheattitudesandthe"stakes"ofindividualworkers,butcanalsoaffectthedevelopmentoftheirchildren'sviewstowardconformityandcauseinvolvementindelinquency.Thisisanongoingstudyashehasfoundasignificantrelationshipbetweenparentallabormarketinvolvementandchildren'sdelinquency,buthasnotempiricallydemonstratedthemediatingroleofparents'orchildren'sattitude.[citationneeded]InastudyconductedbyTimWadsworth,therelationshipbetweenparent'semploymentandchildren'sdelinquency,whichwaspreviouslysuggestedbyCrutchfield(1993),wasshownempiricallyforthefirsttime.Thefindingsfromthisstudysupportedtheideathattherelationshipbetweensocioeconomicstatusanddelinquencymightbebetterunderstoodifthequalityofemploymentanditsroleasaninformalsocialcontroliscloselyexamined.[21] Conflicttheory[edit] Thissectiondoesnotciteanysources.Pleasehelpimprovethissectionbyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(October2021)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Mainarticle:Conflicttheory Insociology,conflicttheorystatesthatsocietyoranorganizationfunctionssothateachindividualparticipantanditsgroupsstruggletomaximizetheirbenefits,whichinevitablycontributestosocialchangesuchaspoliticalchangesandrevolutions.Deviantbehaviorsareactionsthatdonotgoalongwiththesocialinstitutionsaswhatcausedeviance.Theinstitution'sabilitytochangenorms,wealthorstatuscomesintoconflictwiththeindividual.Thelegalrightsofpoorfolksmightbeignored,middleclassarealsoaccept;theysidewiththeelitesratherthanthepoor,thinkingtheymightrisetothetopbysupportingthestatusquo.Conflicttheoryisbasedupontheviewthatthefundamentalcausesofcrimearethesocialandeconomicforcesoperatingwithinsociety.However,itexplainswhite-collarcrimelesswell. Thistheoryalsostatesthatthepowerfuldefinecrime.Thisraisesthequestion:forwhomisthistheoryfunctional?Inthistheory,lawsareinstrumentsofoppression:toughonthepowerlessandlesstoughonthepowerful. KarlMarx[edit] Marxdidnotwriteaboutdeviantbehaviorbuthewroteaboutalienationamongsttheproletariat—aswellasbetweentheproletariatandthefinishedproduct—whichcausesconflict,andthusdeviantbehavior. ManyMarxisttheoristshaveemployedthetheoryofthecapitaliststateintheirarguments.Forexample,StevenSpitzerutilizedthetheoryofbourgeoiscontroloversocialjunkandsocialdynamite;andGeorgeRuschewasknowntopresentanalysisofdifferentpunishmentscorrelatedtothesocialcapacityandinfrastructureforlabor.Hetheorizedthatthroughouthistory,whenmorelaborisneeded,theseverityofpunishmentsdecreasesandthetolerancefordeviantbehaviorincreases.JockYoung,anotherMarxistwriter,presentedtheideathatthemodernworlddidnotapproveofdiversity,butwasnotafraidofsocialconflict.Thelatemodernworld,however,isverytolerantofdiversity.[3]However,itisextremelyafraidofsocialconflicts,whichisanexplanationgivenforthepoliticalcorrectnessmovement.Thelatemodernsocietyeasilyacceptsdifference,butitlabelsthosethatitdoesnotwantasdeviantandrelentlesslypunishesandpersecutes. MichelFoucault[edit] MichelFoucaultbelievedthattorturehadbeenphasedoutfrommodernsocietyduetothedispersionofpower;therewasnoneedanymoreforthewrathofthestateonadeviantindividual.Rather,themodernstatereceivespraiseforitsfairnessanddispersionofpowerwhich,insteadofcontrollingeachindividual,controlsthemass. Healsotheorizedthatinstitutionscontrolpeoplethroughtheuseofdiscipline.Forexample,themodernprison(morespecificallythepanopticon)isatemplatefortheseinstitutionsbecauseitcontrolsitsinmatesbytheperfectuseofdiscipline. Foucaulttheorizesthat,inasense,thepostmodernsocietyischaracterizedbythelackoffreewillonthepartofindividuals.Institutionsofknowledge,norms,andvalues,aresimplyinplacetocategorizeandcontrolhumans. Biologicaltheoriesofdeviance[edit] PraveenAttriclaimsgeneticreasonstobelargelyresponsibleforsocialdeviance.TheItalianschoolofcriminologycontendsthatbiologicalfactorsmaycontributetocrimeanddeviance.CesareLombrosowasamongthefirsttoresearchanddeveloptheTheoryofBiologicalDeviancewhichstatesthatsomepeoplearegeneticallypredisposedtocriminalbehavior.Hebelievedthatcriminalswereaproductofearliergeneticforms.ThemaininfluenceofhisresearchwasCharlesDarwinandhisTheoryofEvolution.Lombrosotheorizedthatpeoplewereborncriminalsorinotherwords,lessevolvedhumanswhowerebiologicallymorerelatedtoourmoreprimitiveandanimalisticurges.Fromhisresearch,LombrosotookDarwin'sTheoryandlookedatprimitivetimeshimselfinregardstodeviantbehaviors.Hefoundthattheskeletonsthathestudiedmostlyhadlowforeheadsandprotrudingjaws.ThesecharacteristicsresembledprimitivebeingssuchasHomoNeanderthalensis.Hestatedthatlittlecouldbedonetocureborncriminalsbecausetheircharacteristicswerebiologicallyinherited.Overtime,mostofhisresearchwasdisproved.HisresearchwasrefutedbyPearsonandCharlesGoring.TheydiscoveredthatLombrosohadnotresearchedenoughskeletonstomakehisresearchthoroughenough.WhenPearsonandGoringresearchedskeletonsontheirowntheytestedmanymoreandfoundthatthebonestructurehadnorelevanceindeviantbehavior.ThestatisticalstudythatCharlesGoringpublishedonthisresearchiscalled"TheEnglishConvict". Othertheories[edit] TheclassicalschoolofcriminologycomesfromtheworksofCesareBeccariaandJeremyBentham.Beccariaassumedautilitarianviewofsocietyalongwithasocialcontracttheoryofthestate.Hearguedthattheroleofthestatewastomaximizethegreatestpossibleutilitytothemaximumnumberofpeopleandtominimizethoseactionsthatharmthesociety.Hearguedthatdeviantscommitdeviantacts(whichareharmfultothesociety)becauseoftheutilityitgivestotheprivateindividual.Ifthestateweretomatchthepainofpunishmentswiththeutilityofvariousdeviantbehaviors,thedeviantwouldnolongerhaveanyincentivetocommitdeviantacts.(NotethatBeccariaarguedforjustpunishment;asraisingtheseverityofpunishmentswithoutregardtologicalmeasurementofutilitywouldcauseincreasingdegreesofsocialharmonceitreachedacertainpoint.) Thecriminaljusticesystem[edit] Therearethreesectionsofthecriminaljusticesystemthatfunctiontoenforceformaldeviance:[5] Police:Thepolicemaintainpublicorderbyenforcingthelaw.Policeusepersonaldiscretionindecidingwhetherandhowtohandleasituation.Researchsuggeststhatpolicearemorelikelytomakeanarrestiftheoffenceisserious,ifbystandersarepresent,orifthesuspectisofavisibleminority.[3] Courts:Courtsrelyonanadversarialprocessinwhichattorneys-onerepresentingthedefendantandonerepresentingtheCrown-presenttheircasesinthepresenceofajudgewhomonitorslegalprocedures.Inpractice,courtsresolvemostcasesthroughpleabargaining.Thoughefficient,thismethodputslesspowerfulpeopleatadisadvantage.[3] Correctionssystem:Community-basedcorrectionsincludeprobationandparole.[5]Theseprogramslowerthecostofsupervisingpeopleconvictedofcrimesandreduceprisonovercrowdingbuthavenotbeenshowntoreducerecidivism.[3] Therearefourjurisdictionsforpunishment(retribution,deterrence,rehabilitation,societalprotection),[3]whichfallunderoneoftwoformsofjusticethatanoffenderwillface:[8] Punitivejustice(retribution&deterrence):Thisformofjusticedefinesboundariesofacceptablebehaviors,wherebyanindividualsufferstheconsequencesofcommittingacrimeandinwhichpainorsufferinginflictedontheindividualishiddenfromthepublic. Rehabilitativejustice(rehabilitation&societalprotection):Thisformofjusticefocusesonspecificcircumstances,wherebyindividualsaremeanttobefixed. Seealso[edit] Abnormality Antisocialbehavior DeviantBehavior Libertine Nonconformity Personalitydisorders Antisocialpersonalitydisorder Politicalabuseofpsychiatry Positivedeviance Psychopathy Roleengulfment Rudeness Sin Socialdisorganizationtheory Sociopathy Workplaceaggression Workplacedeviance Victimology Notes[edit] ^Erikson,KaiT.(1962)."NotesontheSociologyofDeviance".SocialProblems.9(4):307–314.doi:10.2307/798544.ISSN 0037-7791.JSTOR 798544. ^Goode,Erich(2015),"TheSociologyofDeviance",TheHandbookofDeviance,JohnWiley&Sons,Ltd,pp. 1–29,doi:10.1002/9781118701386.ch1,ISBN 978-1-118-70138-6,retrieved2021-11-05 ^abcdefghijklmnMacionis,John;Gerber,Linda(2010).Sociology(7thCanadian ed.).Toronto:Pearson.ISBN 978-0-13-511927-3. ^Heckert,Alex(2002)."Anewtypologyofdeviance:Integratingnormativeandreactivistdefinitionsofdeviance".DeviantBehavior.23(5):449–79.doi:10.1080/016396202320265319.S2CID 144506509. ^abc"IntroductiontoSociology2e".OpenStaxCNX(Opensourcetextbook).RiceUniversity.DevianceandControl.Retrieved2019-02-28. ^"Sociology".SocialScienceLibreTexts.OpenEducationResourceLibreTextsProject.2018-07-30.7.1B:NormsandSanctions.Retrieved2019-04-22. ^"7.1E:TheFunctionsofDeviance".SocialSciLibreTexts.2018-07-30.Retrieved2019-04-22. ^abcdConley,Dalton(2017)[1969].YouMayAskYourself:AnIntroductiontoThinkingLikeaSociologist(5th ed.).NewYork:W.W.Norton.ISBN 9780393602388.OCLC 964624559. ^Paternoster,R.;Mazerolle,P.(1994)."Generalstraintheoryanddelinquency:Areplicationandextension".JournalofResearchinCrimeandDelinquency.31(3):235.doi:10.1177/0022427894031003001.S2CID 145283538. ^Griffin,Em(2012).AFirstLookatCommunicationTheory.NewYork:McGraw-Hill.p. 54.ISBN 978-0-07-353430-5. ^abBlumer,Herbert(1969).Symbolicinteractionism;perspectiveandmethod.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:Prentice-Hall.ISBN 978-0-13-879924-3.OCLC 18071. ^J.M.Charon.2007.SymbolicInteractionism:AnIntroduction,AnInterpretation,Integration.UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PearsonPrenticeHall. ^Meltzer,B.N.,J.W.Petras,andL.T.Reynolds.1975.SymbolicInteractionism:Genesis,Varieties,andCriticism.Boston:Routledge&KeganPaul. ^abBotterweck,MichaelC.,etal.(eds.).2011.EverydaySociology.Elmhurst,IL:StarpointPress.p152. ^Mitchell,Jim;Dodder,RichardA.(1983)."Typesofneutralizationanddelinquency".JournalofYouthandAdolescence.12(4):307–18.doi:10.1007/BF02088729.PMID 24306310.S2CID 206811362. ^Jensen,GaryF.2007.ThePathoftheDevil:EarlyModernWitchHunts.Lanham,MD:Rowman&Littlefield.p.88. ^Becker,HowardS.1963.Outsiders:StudiesintheSociologyofDeviance.NewYork:TheFreePress.ISBN 978-0-684-83635-5. ^Thomson,Doug.2004.CrimeandDeviance.p.12. ^Greene,Jim(2018).BrokenWindowsTheory.SalemPressEncyclopedia. ^Flexon,JamieL.(2010)."Reckless,WalterC.:ContainmentTheory".InCullen,FrancisT.;Wilcox,Pamela(eds.).EncyclopediaofCriminologicalTheory.ThousandOaks,Calif.:SAGEPublications.pp. 777–82.ISBN 9781412959186. ^Wadsworth,T.(2000)."Labormarkets,delinquency,andsocialcontroltheory:Anempiricalassessmentofthemediatingprocess".SocialForces.78(3):1041–66.doi:10.1093/sf/78.3.1041. Furtherreading[edit] Clinard,M.B.,andR.F.Meier.1968.SociologyofDeviantBehavior. Dinitz,Simon,RussellR.Dynes,andAlfredC.Clarke.1975.Deviance:StudiesinDefinition,Management,andTreatment. Douglas,J.D.,andF.C.Waksler.1982.TheSociologyofDeviance:AnIntroduction.Boston:Little,Brown&Co. MacNamara,DonalE.J.,andAndrewKarmen.1983.DEVIANTS:VictimsorVictimizers?BeverlyHills,Calif.:Sage. Pratt,Travis.n.d."ReconsideringGottfredsonandHirschi’sGeneralTheoryofCrime:LinkingtheMicro-andMacro-levelSourcesofSelf-controlandCriminalBehaviorOvertheLife-course." Bartel,Phil.2012."Deviance."SocialControlandResponsestoVariantBehaviour(module).VancouverCommunityNetwork.Web.Accessed7April2020. "TypesofDeviance."CriminalJustice.AcadiaUniversity.Archivedfromtheoriginalon17Oct10.Retrievedon23Feb.2012. "ResearchatCSC."CorrectionalServiceofCanada.GovernmentofCanada.Web.Retrievedon23Feb2012. Macionis,John,andLindaGerber.2010."EmileDurkheim"sBasicInsight"Sociology(7thed.). Macionis,John,andLindaGerber.2010."TheCriminalJusticeSystem"Sociology(7thed.). Su,JennyC.;Chiu,Chi-Yue;Lin,Wei-Fang;Oishi,Shigehiro(2016)."SocialMonitoringMattersforDeterringSocialDevianceinStablebutNotMobileSocio-EcologicalContexts".PLOSONE.11(11):e0167053.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0167053.PMC 5120833.PMID 27880826. Mehrabi,M.;Eskandarieh,S.;Khodadost,M.;Sadeghi,M.;Nikfarjam,A.;Hajebi,A.(2016)."TheImpactofSocialStructuresonDeviantBehaviors:TheStudyof402HighRiskStreetDrugUsersinIran".JournalofAddiction.2016:1–8.doi:10.1155/2016/6891751.PMC 5138462.PMID 27994907. Courtois,Cynthia;Gendron,Yves(2017)."The"Normalization"ofDeviance:ACaseStudyontheProcessUnderlyingtheAdoptionofDeviantBehavior".Auditing:AJournalofPractice&Theory.36(3):15–43.doi:10.2308/ajpt-51665. 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