Reincarnation - Wikipedia

Reincarnation, also known as rebirth or transmigration, is the philosophical or religious concept that the non-physical essence of a living being begins a ... Reincarnation FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Conceptofrebirthindifferentphysicalform "Reincarnate"and"Pastlives"redirecthere.Forotheruses,seeReincarnation(disambiguation)andPastLives. NottobeconfusedwithResurrection. FortheFuturamaepisode,seeReincarnation(Futurama). IllustrationofreincarnationinIndianart. InJainism,asoultravelstoanyoneofthefourstatesofexistenceafterdeathdependingonitskarmas. Reincarnation,alsoknownasrebirthortransmigration,isthephilosophicalorreligiousconceptthatthenon-physicalessenceofalivingbeingbeginsanewlifeinadifferentphysicalformorbodyafterbiologicaldeath.[1][2]Resurrectionisasimilarprocesshypothesizedbysomereligions,inwhichasoulcomesbacktolifeinthesamebody.Inmostbeliefsinvolvingreincarnation,thesoulisseenasimmortalandtheonlythingthatbecomesperishableisthebody.Upondeath,thesoulbecomestransmigratedintoanewinfant(oranimal)toliveagain.Thetermtransmigrationmeanspassingofsoulfromonebodytoanotherafterdeath. Reincarnation(Punarjanma)isacentraltenetoftheIndianreligionssuchasBuddhism,Hinduism,Jainism,andSikhism;aswellascertainPaganistreligiousgroups,althoughthereareHinduandBuddhistgroupswhodonotbelieveinreincarnation,insteadbelievinginanafterlife.[2][3][4][5]Invariousforms,itoccursasanesotericbeliefinmanystreamsofJudaismindifferentaspects,insomebeliefsoftheIndigenouspeoplesoftheAmericas,[6]andsomeIndigenousAustralians(thoughmostbelieveinanafterlifeorspiritworld).[7]Abeliefinrebirth/metempsychosiswasheldbyGreekhistoricalfigures,suchasPythagoras,Socrates,andPlato,aswellasinvariousmodernreligions.[8] AlthoughthemajorityofdenominationswithinChristianityandIslamdonotbelievethatindividualsreincarnate,particulargroupswithinthesereligionsdorefertoreincarnation;thesegroupsincludethemainstreamhistoricalandcontemporaryfollowersofCathars,Alawites,theDruze,[9]andtheRosicrucians.[10]ThehistoricalrelationsbetweenthesesectsandthebeliefsaboutreincarnationthatwerecharacteristicofNeoplatonism,Orphism,Hermeticism,Manichaenism,andGnosticismoftheRomaneraaswellastheIndianreligionshavebeenthesubjectofrecentscholarlyresearch.[11]Inrecentdecades,manyEuropeansandNorthAmericanshavedevelopedaninterestinreincarnation,[12]andmanycontemporaryworksmentionit. Contents 1Conceptualdefinitions 2History 2.1Origins 2.2EarlyJainism,Buddhism,andHinduism 2.2.1Rationale 2.2.2Comparison 2.3Classicalantiquity 2.3.1Mysterycults 2.3.2Laterauthors 2.4Celticpaganism 2.5Germanicpaganism 2.6Judaism 2.7Christianity 2.7.1Gnosticism 2.8Taoism 2.9EuropeanMiddleAges 2.10RenaissanceandEarlyModernperiod 2.1119thto20thcenturies 3Religionsandphilosophies 3.1Buddhism 3.2Christianity 3.2.1Early 3.3Druze 3.4Hinduism 3.5Islam 3.5.1Ghulatsects 3.6Jainism 3.7Judaism 3.8Ho-Chunk 3.9Sikhism 3.10Newreligiousandspiritualmovements 3.10.1Spiritism 3.10.2Theosophy 3.10.3Anthroposophy 3.10.4Modernastrology 3.10.5Scientology 3.10.6Wicca 4Reincarnationandscience 4.1Claimsofpastlives 4.2Pastliferegression 5Seealso 6References 7Externallinks Conceptualdefinitions[edit] ThewordreincarnationderivesfromaLatintermthatliterallymeans'enteringthefleshagain'.Reincarnationreferstothebeliefthatanaspectofeveryhumanbeing(oralllivingbeingsinsomecultures)continuestoexistafterdeath.Thisaspectmaybethesoulormindorconsciousnessorsomethingtranscendentwhichisreborninaninterconnectedcycleofexistence;thetransmigrationbeliefvariesbyculture,andisenvisionedtobeintheformofanewlybornhumanbeing,oranimal,orplant,orspirit,orasabeinginsomeothernon-humanrealmofexistence.[13][14][15] Analternativetermistransmigration,implyingmigrationfromonelife(body)toanother.[16]ThetermhasbeenusedbymodernphilosopherssuchasKurtGödel[17]andhasenteredtheEnglishlanguage. TheGreekequivalenttoreincarnation,metempsychosis(μετεμψύχωσις),derivesfrommeta('change')andempsykhoun('toputasoulinto'),[18]atermattributedtoPythagoras.[19]AnotherGreektermsometimesusedsynonymouslyispalingenesis,'beingbornagain'.[20] RebirthisakeyconceptfoundinmajorIndianreligions,anddiscussedusingvariousterms.Reincarnation,orPunarjanman(Sanskrit:पुनर्जन्मन्,'rebirth,transmigration'),[21][22]isdiscussedintheancientSanskrittextsofHinduism,Buddhism,andJainism,withmanyalternatetermssuchaspunarāvṛtti(पुनरावृत्ति),punarājāti(पुनराजाति),punarjīvātu(पुनर्जीवातु),punarbhava(पुनर्भव),āgati-gati(आगति-गति,commoninBuddhistPalitext),nibbattin(निब्बत्तिन्),upapatti(उपपत्ति),anduppajjana(उप्पज्जन).[21][23] ThesereligionsbelievethatthisreincarnationiscyclicandanendlessSaṃsāra,unlessonegainsspiritualinsightsthatendsthiscycleleadingtoliberation.[2][3]ThereincarnationconceptisconsideredinIndianreligionsasastepthatstartseach"cycleofaimlessdrifting,wanderingormundaneexistence,"[2]butonethatisanopportunitytoseekspiritualliberationthroughethicallivingandavarietyofmeditative,yogic(marga),orotherspiritualpractices.[24][25]Theyconsiderthereleasefromthecycleofreincarnationsastheultimatespiritualgoal,andcalltheliberationbytermssuchasmoksha,nirvana,muktiandkaivalya.[26][27][28]However,theBuddhist,HinduandJaintraditionshavediffered,sinceancienttimes,intheirassumptionsandintheirdetailsonwhatreincarnates,howreincarnationoccursandwhatleadstoliberation.[29][30] Gilgul,Gilgulneshamot,orGilguleiHaNeshamot(Hebrew:גלגולהנשמות)istheconceptofreincarnationinKabbalisticJudaism,foundinmuchYiddishliteratureamongAshkenaziJews.Gilgulmeans'cycle'andneshamotis'souls'.KabbalisticreincarnationsaysthathumansreincarnateonlytohumansunlessYHWH/EinSof/Godchooses. History[edit] Origins[edit] Theoriginsofthenotionofreincarnationareobscure.[31]DiscussionofthesubjectappearsinthephilosophicaltraditionsofIndia.TheGreekPre-Socraticsdiscussedreincarnation,andtheCelticdruidsarealsoreportedtohavetaughtadoctrineofreincarnation.[32] EarlyJainism,Buddhism,andHinduism[edit] Theconceptsofthecycleofbirthanddeath,Sansāra,andliberationpartlyderivefromascetictraditionsthataroseinIndiaaroundthemiddleofthefirstmillenniumBCE.[33]ThefirsttextualreferencestotheideaofreincarnationappearintheUpanishadsofthelateVedicperiod(c. 1100–c. 500BCE),predatingtheBuddhaandtheMahavira.[34][35]Thoughnodirectevidenceofthishasbeenfound,thetribesoftheGangesvalleyortheDravidiantraditionsofSouthIndiahavebeenproposedasanotherearlysourceofreincarnationbeliefs.[36] Theideaofreincarnation,Sansāra,didnotexistintheearlyVedicreligions.[37][38]TheearlyVedasdonotmentionthedoctrineofKarmaandrebirthbutmentionthebeliefinanafterlife.[39][3][40][41]ItisintheearlyUpanishads,whicharepre-Buddhaandpre-Mahavira,wheretheseideasaredevelopedanddescribedinageneralway.[39][42][43]Detaileddescriptionsfirstappeararoundthemid-1stmillenniumBCEindiversetraditions,includingBuddhism,JainismandvariousschoolsofHinduphilosophy,eachofwhichgaveuniqueexpressiontothegeneralprinciple.[3] ThetextsofancientJainismthathavesurvivedintothemoderneraarepost-Mahavira,likelyfromthelastcenturiesofthefirstmillenniumBCE,andextensivelymentionrebirthandkarmadoctrines.[44][45]TheJainaphilosophyassumesthatthesoul(jivainJainism;atmaninHinduism)existsandiseternal,passingthroughcyclesoftransmigrationandrebirth.[46]Afterdeath,reincarnationintoanewbodyisassertedtobeinstantaneousinearlyJainatexts.[45]Dependingupontheaccumulatedkarma,rebirthoccursintoahigherorlowerbodilyform,eitherinheavenorhellorearthlyrealm.[47][48]Nobodilyformispermanent:everyonediesandreincarnatesfurther.Liberation(kevalya)fromreincarnationispossible,however,throughremovingandendingkarmicaccumulationstoone'ssoul.[49]FromtheearlystagesofJainismon,ahumanbeingwasconsideredthehighestmortalbeing,withthepotentialtoachieveliberation,particularlythroughasceticism.[50][51][52] TheearlyBuddhisttextsdiscussrebirthaspartofthedoctrineofSaṃsāra.Thisassertsthatthenatureofexistenceisa"suffering-ladencycleoflife,death,andrebirth,withoutbeginningorend."[53][54]Alsoreferredtoasthewheelofexistence(Bhavacakra),itisoftenmentionedinBuddhisttextswiththetermpunarbhava(rebirth,re-becoming).Liberationfromthiscycleofexistence,Nirvana,isthefoundationandthemostimportantpurposeofBuddhism.[53][55][56]Buddhisttextsalsoassertthatanenlightenedpersonknowshispreviousbirths,aknowledgeachievedthroughhighlevelsofmeditativeconcentration.[57]TibetanBuddhismdiscussesdeath,bardo(anintermediatestate),andrebirthintextssuchastheTibetanBookoftheDead.WhileNirvanaistaughtastheultimategoalintheTheravadinBuddhism,andisessentialtoMahayanaBuddhism,thevastmajorityofcontemporarylayBuddhistsfocusonaccumulatinggoodkarmaandacquiringmerittoachieveabetterreincarnationinthenextlife.[58][59] InearlyBuddhisttraditions,Saṃsāracosmologyconsistedoffiverealmsthroughwhichthewheelofexistencecycled.[53]Thisincludedhells(niraya),hungryghosts(pretas),animals(tiryak),humans(manushya),andgods(devas,heavenly).[53][54][60]InlatterBuddhisttraditions,thislistgrewtoalistofsixrealmsofrebirth,addingdemigods(asuras).[53][61] Rationale[edit] TheearliestlayersofVedictextincorporatetheconceptoflife,followedbyanafterlifeinheavenandhellbasedoncumulativevirtues(merit)orvices(demerit).[62]However,theancientVedicRishischallengedthisideaofafterlifeassimplistic,becausepeopledonotliveequallymoralorimmorallives.Betweengenerallyvirtuouslives,somearemorevirtuous;whileeviltoohasdegrees,andthetextsassertthatitwouldbeunfairforpeople,withvaryingdegreesofvirtueorvices,toendupinheavenorhell,in"eitheror"anddisproportionatemannerirrespectiveofhowvirtuousorvicioustheirliveswere.[63][64][65]Theyintroducedtheideaofanafterlifeinheavenorhellinproportiontoone'smerit.[66][67][68] Comparison[edit] EarlytextsofHinduism,BuddhismandJainismsharetheconceptsandterminologyrelatedtoreincarnation.[69]Theyalsoemphasizesimilarvirtuouspracticesandkarmaasnecessaryforliberationandwhatinfluencesfuturerebirths.[34][70]Forexample,allthreediscussvariousvirtues—sometimesgroupedasYamasandNiyamas—suchasnon-violence,truthfulness,non-stealing,non-possessiveness,compassionforalllivingbeings,charityandmanyothers.[71][72] Hinduism,BuddhismandJainismdisagreeintheirassumptionsandtheoriesaboutrebirth.Hinduismreliesonitsfoundationalassumptionthat'soul,Selfexists'(atmanorattā),incontrasttoBuddhistassumptionthatthereis'nosoul,noSelf'(anattaoranatman).[73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82]Hindutraditionsconsidersoultobetheunchangingeternalessenceofalivingbeing,andwhatjourneysacrossreincarnationsuntilitattainsself-knowledge.[83][84][85]Buddhism,incontrast,assertsarebirththeorywithoutaSelf,andconsidersrealizationofnon-SelforEmptinessasNirvana(nibbana).ThusBuddhismandHinduismhaveaverydifferentviewonwhetheraselforsoulexists,whichimpactsthedetailsoftheirrespectiverebirththeories.[86][87][88] ThereincarnationdoctrineinJainismdiffersfromthoseinBuddhism,eventhoughbotharenon-theisticSramanatraditions.[89][90]Jainism,incontrasttoBuddhism,acceptsthefoundationalassumptionthatsoulexists(Jiva)andassertsthissoulisinvolvedintherebirthmechanism.[91]Further,Jainismconsidersasceticismasanimportantmeanstospiritualliberationthatendsallreincarnation,whileBuddhismdoesnot.[89][92][93] Classicalantiquity[edit] Seealso:Metempsychosis Asecond-centuryRomansarcophagusshowsthemythologyandsymbolismoftheOrphicandDionysiacMysteryschools.Orpheusplayshislyretotheleft. EarlyGreekdiscussionoftheconceptdatestothesixthcenturyBCE.AnearlyGreekthinkerknowntohaveconsideredrebirthisPherecydesofSyros(fl.540BCE).[94]HisyoungercontemporaryPythagoras(c.570–c.495BCE[95]),itsfirstfamousexponent,institutedsocietiesforitsdiffusion.SomeauthoritiesbelievethatPythagoraswasPherecydes'pupil,othersthatPythagorastookuptheideaofreincarnationfromthedoctrineofOrphism,aThracianreligion,orbroughttheteachingfromIndia. Plato(428/427–348/347BCE)presentedaccountsofreincarnationinhisworks,particularlytheMythofEr,wherePlatomakesSocratestellhowEr,thesonofArmenius,miraculouslyreturnedtolifeonthetwelfthdayafterdeathandrecountedthesecretsoftheotherworld.Therearemythsandtheoriestothesameeffectinotherdialogues,intheChariotallegoryofthePhaedrus,intheMeno,TimaeusandLaws.Thesoul,onceseparatedfromthebody,spendsanindeterminateamountoftimeintheintelligiblerealm(seeTheAllegoryoftheCaveinTheRepublic)andthenassumesanotherbody.IntheTimaeus,Platobelievesthatthesoulmovesfrombodytobodywithoutanydistinctreward-or-punishmentphasebetweenlives,becausethereincarnationisitselfapunishmentorrewardforhowapersonhaslived.[96] InPhaedo,PlatohashisteacherSocrates,priortohisdeath,state:"Iamconfidentthattheretrulyissuchathingaslivingagain,andthatthelivingspringfromthedead."However,XenophondoesnotmentionSocratesasbelievinginreincarnation,andPlatomayhavesystematizedSocrates'thoughtwithconceptshetookdirectlyfromPythagoreanismorOrphism.RecentscholarshavecometoseethatPlatohasmultiplereasonsforthebeliefinreincarnation.[97]Oneargumentconcernsthetheoryofreincarnation'susefulnessforexplainingwhynon-humananimalsexist:theyareformerhumans,beingpunishedfortheirvices;PlatogivesthisargumentattheendoftheTimaeus.[98] Mysterycults[edit] TheOrphicreligion,whichtaughtreincarnation,aboutthesixthcenturyBCE,producedacopiousliterature.[99][100][101]Orpheus,itslegendaryfounder,issaidtohavetaughtthattheimmortalsoulaspirestofreedomwhilethebodyholdsitprisoner.Thewheelofbirthrevolves,thesoulalternatesbetweenfreedomandcaptivityroundthewidecircleofnecessity.Orpheusproclaimedtheneedofthegraceofthegods,Dionysusinparticular,andofself-purificationuntilthesoulhascompletedthespiralascentofdestinytoliveforever. AnassociationbetweenPythagoreanphilosophyandreincarnationwasroutinelyacceptedthroughoutantiquity,asPythagorasalsotaughtaboutreincarnation.However,unliketheOrphics,whoconsideredmetempsychosisacycleofgriefthatcouldbeescapedbyattainingliberationfromit,Pythagorasseemstopostulateaneternal,neutralreincarnationwheresubsequentliveswouldnotbeconditionedbyanyactiondoneintheprevious.[102] Laterauthors[edit] InlaterGreekliteraturethedoctrineismentionedinafragmentofMenander[103]andsatirizedbyLucian.[104]InRomanliteratureitisfoundasearlyasEnnius,[105]who,inalostpassageofhisAnnals,toldhowhehadseenHomerinadream,whohadassuredhimthatthesamesoulwhichhadanimatedboththepoetshadoncebelongedtoapeacock.Persiusinhissatires(vi.9)laughsatthis;itisreferredtoalsobyLucretius[106]andHorace.[107] VirgilworkstheideaintohisaccountoftheUnderworldinthesixthbookoftheAeneid.[108]Itpersistsdowntothelateclassicthinkers,PlotinusandtheotherNeoplatonists.IntheHermetica,aGraeco-EgyptianseriesofwritingsoncosmologyandspiritualityattributedtoHermesTrismegistus/Thoth,thedoctrineofreincarnationiscentral. Celticpaganism[edit] InthefirstcenturyBCEAlexanderCorneliusPolyhistorwrote: ThePythagoreandoctrineprevailsamongtheGauls'teachingthatthesoulsofmenareimmortal,andthatafterafixednumberofyearstheywillenterintoanotherbody. JuliusCaesarrecordedthatthedruidsofGaul,BritainandIrelandhadmetempsychosisasoneoftheircoredoctrines:[109] Theprincipalpointoftheirdoctrineisthatthesouldoesnotdieandthatafterdeathitpassesfromonebodyintoanother...themainobjectofalleducationis,intheiropinion,toimbuetheirscholarswithafirmbeliefintheindestructibilityofthehumansoul,which,accordingtotheirbelief,merelypassesatdeathfromonetenementtoanother;forbysuchdoctrinealone,theysay,whichrobsdeathofallitsterrors,canthehighestformofhumancouragebedeveloped. DiodorusalsorecordedtheGaulbeliefthathumansoulswereimmortal,andthatafteraprescribednumberofyearstheywouldcommenceuponanewlifeinanotherbody.HeaddedthatGaulshadthecustomofcastingletterstotheirdeceaseduponthefuneralpyres,throughwhichthedeadwouldbeabletoreadthem.[110]ValeriusMaximusalsorecountedtheyhadthecustomoflendingsumsofmoneytoeachotherwhichwouldarerepayableinthenextworld.[111]ThiswasmentionedbyPomponiusMela,whoalsorecordedGaulsburiedorburntwiththemthingstheywouldneedinanextlife,tothepointsomewouldjumpintothefuneralpilesoftheirrelativesinordertocohabiteinthenewlifewiththem.[112] HippolytusofRomebelievedtheGaulshadbeentaughtthedoctrineofreincarnationbyaslaveofPythagorasnamedZalmoxis.Conversely,ClementofAlexandriabelievedPythagorashimselfhadlearneditfromtheCeltsandnottheopposite,claiminghehadbeentaughtbyGalatianGauls,HindupriestsandZoroastrians.[113][114]However,authorT.D.KendrickrejectedarealconnectionbetweenPythagorasandtheCelticideareincarnation,notingtheirbeliefstohavesubstantialdifferences,andanycontacttobehistoricallyunlikely.[112]Nonetheless,heproposedthepossibilityofanancientcommonsource,alsorelatedtotheOrphicreligionandThraciansystemsofbelief.[115] Germanicpaganism[edit] Mainarticle:RebirthinGermanicpaganism SurvivingtextsindicatethattherewasabeliefinrebirthinGermanicpaganism.Examplesincludefiguresfromeddicpoetryandsagas,potentiallybywayofaprocessofnamingand/orthroughthefamilyline.ScholarshavediscussedtheimplicationsoftheseattestationsandproposedtheoriesregardingbeliefinreincarnationamongtheGermanicpeoplespriortoChristianizationandpotentiallytosomeextentinfolkbeliefthereafter. Judaism[edit] ThebeliefinreincarnationdevelopedamongJewishmysticsintheMedievalWorld,amongwhomdifferingexplanationsweregivenoftheafterlife,althoughwithauniversalbeliefinanimmortalsoul.[116]ItwasexplicitlyrejectedbySaadiahGaon.[117]Today,reincarnationisanesotericbeliefwithinmanystreamsofmodernJudaism.Kabbalahteachesabeliefingilgul,transmigrationofsouls,andhencethebeliefinreincarnationisuniversalinHasidicJudaism,whichregardstheKabbalahassacredandauthoritative,andisalsoheldasanesotericbeliefwithinModernOrthodoxJudaism.InJudaism,theZohar,firstpublishedinthe13thcentury,discussesreincarnationatlength,especiallyintheTorahportion"Balak."Themostcomprehensivekabbalisticworkonreincarnation,ShaarHaGilgulim,[118][119]waswrittenbyChaimVital,basedontheteachingsofhismentor,the16thcenturykabbalistIsaacLuria,whowassaidtoknowthepastlivesofeachpersonthroughhissemi-propheticabilities.The18thcenturyLithuanianmasterscholarandkabbalist,ElijahofVilna,knownastheVilnaGaon,authoredacommentaryonthebiblicalBookofJonahasanallegoryofreincarnation. ThepracticeofconversiontoJudaismissometimesunderstoodwithinOrthodoxJudaismintermsofreincarnation.AccordingtothisschoolofthoughtinJudaism,whennon-JewsaredrawntoJudaism,itisbecausetheyhadbeenJewsinaformerlife.Suchsoulsmay"wanderamongnations"throughmultiplelives,untiltheyfindtheirwaybacktoJudaism,includingthroughfindingthemselvesborninagentilefamilywitha"lost"Jewishancestor.[120] ThereisanextensiveliteratureofJewishfolkandtraditionalstoriesthatrefertoreincarnation.[121] Christianity[edit] InGreco-Romanthought,theconceptofmetempsychosisdisappearedwiththeriseofEarlyChristianity,reincarnationbeingincompatiblewiththeChristiancoredoctrineofsalvationofthefaithfulafterdeath.IthasbeensuggestedthatsomeoftheearlyChurchFathers,especiallyOrigen,stillentertainedabeliefinthepossibilityofreincarnation,butevidenceistenuous,andthewritingsofOrigenastheyhavecomedowntousspeakexplicitlyagainstit.[122] Hebrews9:27statesthatmen"dieonce,butafterthisthejudgement". Gnosticism[edit] SeveralChristianGnosticsectsprofessedreincarnation.TheSethiansandfollowersofValentinusbelievedinit.[123]ThefollowersofBardaisanofMesopotamia,asectofthesecondcenturydeemedhereticalbytheCatholicChurch,drewuponChaldeanastrology,towhichBardaisan'ssonHarmonius,educatedinAthens,addedGreekideasincludingasortofmetempsychosis.AnothersuchteacherwasBasilides(132–?CE/AD),knowntousthroughthecriticismsofIrenaeusandtheworkofClementofAlexandria(seealsoNeoplatonismandGnosticismandBuddhismandGnosticism). InthethirdChristiancenturyManichaeismspreadbotheastandwestfromBabylonia,thenwithintheSassanidEmpire,whereitsfounderManilivedabout216–276.ManichaeanmonasteriesexistedinRomein312AD.NotingMani'searlytravelstotheKushanEmpireandotherBuddhistinfluencesinManichaeism,RichardFoltz[124]attributesMani'steachingofreincarnationtoBuddhistinfluence.Howevertheinter-relationofManicheanism,Orphism,Gnosticismandneo-Platonismisfarfromclear. Taoism[edit] TaoistdocumentsfromasearlyastheHanDynastyclaimedthatLaoTzuappearedonearthasdifferentpersonsindifferenttimesbeginninginthelegendaryeraofThreeSovereignsandFiveEmperors.The(ca.thirdcenturyBC)ChuangTzustates:"Birthisnotabeginning;deathisnotanend.Thereisexistencewithoutlimitation;thereiscontinuitywithoutastarting-point.ExistencewithoutlimitationisSpace.ContinuitywithoutastartingpointisTime.Thereisbirth,thereisdeath,thereisissuingforth,thereisenteringin."[125][better source needed] EuropeanMiddleAges[edit] Aroundthe11–12thcenturyinEurope,severalreincarnationistmovementswerepersecutedasheresies,throughtheestablishmentoftheInquisitionintheLatinwest.TheseincludedtheCathar,PatereneorAlbigensianchurchofwesternEurope,thePaulicianmovement,whicharoseinArmenia,[126]andtheBogomilsinBulgaria.[127] ChristiansectssuchastheBogomilsandtheCathars,whoprofessedreincarnationandothergnosticbeliefs,werereferredtoas"Manichaean",andaretodaysometimesdescribedbyscholarsas"Neo-Manichaean".[128]AsthereisnoknownManichaeanmythologyorterminologyinthewritingsofthesegroupstherehasbeensomedisputeamonghistoriansastowhetherthesegroupstrulyweredescendantsofManichaeism.[129] RenaissanceandEarlyModernperiod[edit] Whilereincarnationhasbeenamatteroffaithinsomecommunitiesfromanearlydateithasalsofrequentlybeenarguedforonprinciple,asPlatodoeswhenhearguesthatthenumberofsoulsmustbefinitebecausesoulsareindestructible,[130]BenjaminFranklinheldasimilarview.[131]Sometimessuchconvictions,asinSocrates'case,arisefromamoregeneralpersonalfaith,atothertimesfromanecdotalevidencesuchasPlatomakesSocratesofferintheMythofEr. DuringtheRenaissancetranslationsofPlato,theHermeticaandotherworksfosterednewEuropeaninterestinreincarnation.MarsilioFicino[132]arguedthatPlato'sreferencestoreincarnationwereintendedallegorically,Shakespearealludedtothedoctrineofreincarnation[133]butGiordanoBrunowasburnedatthestakebyauthoritiesafterbeingfoundguiltyofheresybytheRomanInquisitionforhisteachings.[134]ButtheGreekphilosophicalworksremainedavailableand,particularlyinnorthEurope,werediscussedbygroupssuchastheCambridgePlatonists.EmanuelSwedenborgbelievedthatweleavethephysicalworldonce,butthengothroughseverallivesinthespiritualworld—akindofhybridofChristiantraditionandthepopularviewofreincarnation.[135] 19thto20thcenturies[edit] AmericanpsychologistandphilosopherWilliamJames(1842–1910)wasanearlypsychicalresearcher.[136] Bythe19thcenturythephilosophersSchopenhauer[137]andNietzsche[138]couldaccesstheIndianscripturesfordiscussionofthedoctrineofreincarnation,whichrecommendeditselftotheAmericanTranscendentalistsHenryDavidThoreau,WaltWhitmanandRalphWaldoEmersonandwasadaptedbyFrancisBowenintoChristianMetempsychosis.[139] Bytheearly20thcentury,interestinreincarnationhadbeenintroducedintothenascentdisciplineofpsychology,largelyduetotheinfluenceofWilliamJames,whoraisedaspectsofthephilosophyofmind,comparativereligion,thepsychologyofreligiousexperienceandthenatureofempiricism.[140]JameswasinfluentialinthefoundingoftheAmericanSocietyforPsychicalResearch(ASPR)inNewYorkCityin1885,threeyearsaftertheBritishSocietyforPsychicalResearch(SPR)wasinauguratedinLondon,[136]leadingtosystematic,criticalinvestigationofparanormalphenomena.FamousWorldWarIIAmericanGeneralGeorgePattonwasastrongbelieverinreincarnation,believing,amongotherthings,hewasareincarnationoftheCarthaginianGeneralHannibal. AtthistimepopularawarenessoftheideaofreincarnationwasboostedbytheTheosophicalSociety'sdisseminationofsystematisedanduniversalisedIndianconceptsandalsobytheinfluenceofmagicalsocietieslikeTheGoldenDawn.NotablepersonalitieslikeAnnieBesant,W.B.YeatsandDionFortunemadethesubjectalmostasfamiliaranelementofthepopularcultureofthewestasoftheeast.By1924thesubjectcouldbesatirisedinpopularchildren'sbooks.[141]HumoristDonMarquiscreatedafictionalcatnamedMehitabelwhoclaimedtobeareincarnationofQueenCleopatra.[142] ThéodoreFlournoywasamongthefirsttostudyaclaimofpast-liferecallinthecourseofhisinvestigationofthemediumHélèneSmith,publishedin1900,inwhichhedefinedthepossibilityofcryptomnesiainsuchaccounts.[143] CarlGustavJung,likeFlournoybasedinSwitzerland,alsoemulatedhiminhisthesisbasedonastudyofcryptomnesiainpsychism.LaterJungwouldemphasisetheimportanceofthepersistenceofmemoryandegoinpsychologicalstudyofreincarnation:"Thisconceptofrebirthnecessarilyimpliesthecontinuityofpersonality...(that)oneisable,atleastpotentially,torememberthatonehaslivedthroughpreviousexistences,andthattheseexistenceswereone'sown...."[139]Hypnosis,usedinpsychoanalysisforretrievingforgottenmemories,waseventuallytriedasameansofstudyingthephenomenonofpastliferecall. Morerecently,manypeopleintheWesthavedevelopedaninterestinandacceptanceofreincarnation.[12]Manynewreligiousmovementsincludereincarnationamongtheirbeliefs,e.g.modernNeopagans,Spiritism,Astara,[144]Dianetics,andScientology.Manyesotericphilosophiesalsoincludereincarnation,e.g.Theosophy,Anthroposophy,Kabbalah,andGnosticandEsotericChristianitysuchastheworksofMartinusThomsen. Demographicsurveydatafrom1999to2002showsasignificantminorityofpeoplefromEurope(22%)andAmerica(20%)believeintheexistenceoflifebeforebirthandafterdeath,leadingtoaphysicalrebirth.[12][145]ThebeliefinreincarnationisparticularlyhighintheBalticcountries,withLithuaniahavingthehighestfigureforthewholeofEurope,44%,whilethelowestfigureisinEastGermany,12%.[12]AquarterofU.S.Christians,including10%ofallbornagainChristians,embracetheidea.[146] Academicpsychiatristandbelieverinreincarnation,IanStevenson,reportedthatbeliefinreincarnationisheld(withvariationsindetails)byadherentsofalmostallmajorreligionsexceptChristianityandIslam.Inaddition,between20and30percentofpersonsinwesterncountrieswhomaybenominalChristiansalsobelieveinreincarnation.[147]One1999studybyWalterandWaterhousereviewedthepreviousdataonthelevelofreincarnationbeliefandperformedasetofthirtyin-depthinterviewsinBritainamongpeoplewhodidnotbelongtoareligionadvocatingreincarnation.[148]TheauthorsreportedthatsurveyshavefoundaboutonefifthtoonequarterofEuropeanshavesomelevelofbeliefinreincarnation,withsimilarresultsfoundintheUSA.Intheinterviewedgroup,thebeliefintheexistenceofthisphenomenonappearedindependentoftheirage,orthetypeofreligionthatthesepeoplebelongedto,withmostbeingChristians.Thebeliefsofthisgroupalsodidnotappeartocontainanymorethanusualof"newage"ideas(broadlydefined)andtheauthorsinterpretedtheirideasonreincarnationas"onewayoftacklingissuesofsuffering",butnotedthatthisseemedtohavelittleeffectontheirprivatelives. Waterhousealsopublishedadetaileddiscussionofbeliefsexpressedintheinterviews.[149]Shenotedthatalthoughmostpeople"holdtheirbeliefinreincarnationquitelightly"andwereunclearonthedetailsoftheirideas,personalexperiencessuchaspast-lifememoriesandnear-deathexperienceshadinfluencedmostbelievers,althoughonlyafewhaddirectexperienceofthesephenomena.Waterhouseanalyzedtheinfluencesofsecond-handaccountsofreincarnation,writingthatmostofthepeopleinthesurveyhadheardotherpeople'saccountsofpast-livesfromregressionhypnosisanddreamsandfoundthesefascinating,feelingthatthere"mustbesomethinginit"ifotherpeoplewerehavingsuchexperiences. OtherinfluentialcontemporaryfiguresthathavewrittenonreincarnationincludeAliceAnnBailey,oneofthefirstwriterstousethetermsNewAgeandageofAquarius,TorkomSaraydarian,anArmenian-Americanmusicianandreligiousauthor,DoloresCannon,AtulGawande,MichaelNewton,BruceGreyson,RaymondMoodyandUnityChurchfounderCharlesFillmore.[citationneeded]NealeDonaldWalsch,anAmericanauthoroftheseriesConversationswithGodclaimsthathehasreincarnatedmorethan600times.[150]TheIndianspiritualteacherMeherBabawhohadsignificantfollowingintheWesttaughtthatreincarnationfollowedfromhumandesireandceasedonceapersonwasfreedfromdesire.[151] Religionsandphilosophies[edit] Buddhism[edit] Mainarticles:Rebirth(Buddhism)andSaṃsāra(Buddhism) Inthis8-meter(25-foot)tallBuddhistrelief,madebetween1177and1249,islocatedatDazuRockCarvings,Chongqing,ChinaMara,LordofDeathandDesire,clutchesaWheelofReincarnationwhichoutlinestheBuddhistcycleofreincarnation. PartofaseriesonBuddhism History Timeline GautamaBuddha Pre-sectarianBuddhism Councils SilkRoadtransmissionofBuddhism DeclineintheIndiansubcontinent LaterBuddhists Buddhistmodernism DharmaConcepts FourNobleTruths NobleEightfoldPath Dharmawheel FiveAggregates Impermanence Suffering Not-self DependentOrigination MiddleWay Emptiness Morality Karma Rebirth Saṃsāra Cosmology Buddhisttexts Buddhavacana EarlyTexts Tripiṭaka MahayanaSutras PāliCanon Sanskritliterature Tibetancanon Chinesecanon Post-canon Practices ThreeJewels BuddhistPathstoliberation Fiveprecepts Perfections Meditation Philosophicalreasoning Devotionalpractices Meritmaking Recollections Mindfulness Wisdom Sublimeabidings AidstoEnlightenment Monasticism Laylife Buddhistchant Pilgrimage Vegetarianism Nirvāṇa Awakening FourStages Arhat Pratyekabuddha Bodhisattva Buddha Traditions Theravāda Pāli Mahāyāna Hinayana Chinese Vajrayāna Tibetan Navayana Newar Buddhismbycountry Bhutan Cambodia China India Japan Korea Laos Mongolia Myanmar Russia US SriLanka Taiwan Thailand Tibet Vietnam Glossary Index Outline  Religionportalvte AccordingtovariousBuddhistscriptures,GautamaBuddhabelievedintheexistenceofanafterlifeinanotherworldandinreincarnation, Sincethereactuallyisanotherworld(anyworldotherthanthepresenthumanone,i.e.differentrebirthrealms),onewhoholdstheview'thereisnootherworld'haswrongview... — Buddha,MajjhimaNikayai.402,ApannakaSutta,translatedbyPeterHarvey[152] TheBuddhaalsoassertedthatkarmainfluencesrebirth,andthatthecyclesofrepeatedbirthsanddeathsareendless.[152][153]BeforethebirthofBuddha,ancientIndianscholarshaddevelopedcompetingtheoriesofafterlife,includingthematerialisticschoolsuchasCharvaka,[154]whichpositedthatdeathistheend,thereisnoafterlife,nosoul,norebirth,nokarma,andtheydescribeddeathtobeastatewherealivingbeingiscompletelyannihilated,dissolved.[155]Buddharejectedthistheory,adoptedthealternateexistingtheoriesonrebirth,criticizingthematerialisticschoolsthatdeniedrebirthandkarma,statesDamienKeown.[156]Suchbeliefsareinappropriateanddangerous,statedBuddha,becausesuchannihilationismviewsencouragemoralirresponsibilityandmaterialhedonism;[157]hetiedmoralresponsibilitytorebirth.[152][156] TheBuddhaintroducedtheconceptthatthereisnopermanentself(soul),andthiscentralconceptinBuddhismiscalledanattā.[158][159][160]MajorcontemporaryBuddhisttraditionssuchasTheravada,MahayanaandVajrayanatraditionsaccepttheteachingsofBuddha.Theseteachingsassertthereisrebirth,thereisnopermanentselfandnoirreducibleātman(soul)movingfromlifetoanotherandtyingtheselivestogether,thereisimpermanence,thatallcompoundedthingssuchaslivingbeingsareaggregatesdissolveatdeath,buteverybeingreincarnates.[161][162][163]Therebirthcyclescontinueendlessly,statesBuddhism,anditisasourceofduhkha(suffering,pain),butthisreincarnationandduhkhacyclecanbestoppedthroughnirvana.TheanattādoctrineofBuddhismisacontrasttoHinduism,thelatterassertingthat"soulexists,itisinvolvedinrebirth,anditisthroughthissoulthateverythingisconnected."[164][165][166] DifferenttraditionswithinBuddhismhaveoffereddifferenttheoriesonwhatreincarnatesandhowreincarnationhappens.Onetheorysuggeststhatitoccursthroughconsciousness(Sanskrit:vijñāna;Pali:samvattanika-viññana)[167][168]orstreamofconsciousness(Sanskrit:citta-santāna,vijñāna-srotām,orvijñāna-santāna;Pali:viññana-sotam)[169]upondeath,whichreincarnatesintoanewaggregation.Thisprocess,statesthistheory,issimilartotheflameofadyingcandlelightingupanother.[170][171]TheconsciousnessinthenewlybornbeingisneitheridenticaltonorentirelydifferentfromthatinthedeceasedbutthetwoformacausalcontinuumorstreaminthisBuddhisttheory.Transmigrationisinfluencedbyabeing'spastkarma(Pali:kamma).[172][173]Therootcauseofrebirth,statesBuddhism,istheabidingofconsciousnessinignorance(Sanskrit:avidya;Pali:avijja)aboutthenatureofreality,andwhenthisignoranceisuprooted,rebirthceases.[174] A12th-centuryJapanesepaintingshowingoneofthesixBuddhistrealmsofreincarnation(rokudō,六道) Buddhisttraditionsalsovaryintheirmechanisticdetailsonrebirth.MostTheravadaBuddhistsassertthatrebirthisimmediatewhiletheTibetanandmostChineseandJapaneseschoolsholdtothenotionofabardo(intermediatestate)thatcanlastupto49days.[175][176]ThebardorebirthconceptofTibetanBuddhism,originallydevelopedinIndiabutspreadtoTibetandotherBuddhistcountries,andinvolves42peacefuldeities,and58wrathfuldeities.[177]Theseideasledtomapsonkarmaandwhatformofrebirthonetakesafterdeath,discussedintextssuchasTheTibetanBookoftheDead.[178][179]ThemajorBuddhisttraditionsacceptthatthereincarnationofabeingdependsonthepastkarmaandmerit(demerit)accumulated,andthattherearesixrealmsofexistenceinwhichtherebirthmayoccuraftereachdeath.[180][14][58] WithinJapaneseZen,reincarnationisacceptedbysome,butrejectedbyothers.Adistinctioncanbedrawnbetween'folkZen',asintheZenpracticedbydevotionallaypeople,and'philosophicalZen'.FolkZengenerallyacceptsthevarioussupernaturalelementsofBuddhismsuchasrebirth.PhilosophicalZen,however,placesmoreemphasisonthepresentmoment.[181][182] Someschoolsconcludethatkarmacontinuestoexistandadheretothepersonuntilitworksoutitsconsequences.FortheSautrantikaschool,eachact"perfumes"theindividualor"plantsaseed"thatlatergerminates.TibetanBuddhismstressesthestateofmindatthetimeofdeath.Todiewithapeacefulmindwillstimulateavirtuousseedandafortunaterebirth;adisturbedmindwillstimulateanon-virtuousseedandanunfortunaterebirth.[183] Christianity[edit] InthemajorChristiandenominations,theconceptofreincarnationisnotpresentanditisnowhereexplicitlyreferredtointheBible.However,theimpossibilityofasecondearthlydeathisstatedby1Peter3:18–20,whereitaffirmsthatthemessiah,JesusofNazareth,diedonceforeverforthesinsofallthehumankind.Matthew14:1–2mentionsthatkingHerodAntipastookJesustobearisenJohntheBaptist,[184]whenintroducingthestoryofJohn'sexecutionatHerod'sorders. InasurveybythePewForumin2009,22%ofAmericanChristiansexpressedabeliefinreincarnation,[185]andina1981survey31%ofregularchurchgoingEuropeanCatholicsexpressedabeliefinreincarnation.[186] SomeChristiantheologiansinterpretcertainBiblicalpassagesasreferringtoreincarnation.ThesepassagesincludethequestioningofJesusastowhetherheisElijah,JohntheBaptist,Jeremiah,oranotherprophet(Matthew16:13–15andJohn1:21–22)and,lessclearly(whileElijahwassaidnottohavedied,buttohavebeentakenuptoheaven),JohntheBaptistbeingaskedifheisnotElijah(John1:25).[187][188][189]GeddesMacGregor,anEpiscopalianpriestandprofessorofphilosophy,hasmadeacaseforthecompatibilityofChristiandoctrineandreincarnation.[190] Early[edit] Thereisevidence[191][192]thatOrigen,aChurchfatherinearlyChristiantimes,taughtreincarnationinhislifetimebutthatwhenhisworksweretranslatedintoLatinthesereferenceswereconcealed.OneoftheepistleswrittenbySt.Jerome,"ToAvitus"(Letter124;AdAvitum.EpistulaCXXIV),[193]whichassertsthatOrigen'sOntheFirstPrinciples(Latin:DePrincipiis;Greek:ΠερὶἈρχῶν)[194]wasmistranscribed: AbouttenyearsagothatsaintlymanPammachiussentmeacopyofacertainperson's[Rufinus's[193]]rendering,orrathermisrendering,ofOrigen'sFirstPrinciples;witharequestthatinaLatinversionIshouldgivethetruesenseoftheGreekandshouldsetdownthewriter'swordsforgoodorforevilwithoutbiasineitherdirection.WhenIdidashewishedandsenthimthebook,hewasshockedtoreaditandlockeditupinhisdesklestbeingcirculateditmightwoundthesoulsofmany.[192] UndertheimpressionthatOrigenwasahereticlikeArius,St.JeromecriticizesideasdescribedinOntheFirstPrinciples.Furtherin"ToAvitus"(Letter124),St.Jeromewritesabout"convincingproof"thatOrigenteachesreincarnationintheoriginalversionofthebook: Thefollowingpassageisaconvincingproofthatheholdsthetransmigrationofthesoulsandannihilationofbodies.'Ifitcanbeshownthatanincorporealandreasonablebeinghaslifeinitselfindependentlyofthebodyandthatitisworseoffinthebodythanoutofit;thenbeyondadoubtbodiesareonlyofsecondaryimportanceandarisefromtimetotimetomeetthevaryingconditionsofreasonablecreatures.Thosewhorequirebodiesareclothedwiththem,andcontrariwise,whenfallensoulshaveliftedthemselvesuptobetterthings,theirbodiesareoncemoreannihilated.Theyarethusevervanishingandeverreappearing.'[192] TheoriginaltextofOnFirstPrincipleshasalmostcompletelydisappeared.ItremainsextantasDePrincipiisinfragmentsfaithfullytranslatedintoLatinbySt.Jeromeandin"thenotveryreliableLatintranslationofRufinus."[194] BeliefinreincarnationwasrejectedbyAugustineofHippoinTheCityofGod.[195] Druze[edit] Partofaserieson Druze Beliefs Al-Muwahhidun-Ahlat-Tawhid Reincarnation Theophany Esotericism DivineCall SevenDruzepillars Taqiya Walayah Importantfigures Jethro Al-Hakimbi-AmrAllah Shuaib Hamza Muhammadal-Darazi Bahaal-Dinal-Muqtana Al-Tanukhi Texts EpistlesofWisdom(Rasa'ilal-Hikma) Holyplaces JabalAlDruze NabiShu'ayb Khalwat Holydays EidAlAdha ZiyaratAlNabiShu'ayb History Tanukh(Buhtur)dynasty Ma'ndynasty 1585OttomanexpeditionagainsttheDruze DruzePowerStruggle(1658–1667) BattleofAinDara 1838DruzeRevolt 1860civilconflictinMountLebanonandDamascus HauranDruzeRebellion JabalDruzeState Jayshal-Muwahhideen QalbLozemassacre Druzeandotherreligions ChristianityandDruze IslamandDruze JudaismandDruze Druzecommunities SyrianDruze LebaneseDruze IsraeliDruze JordanianDruze Relatedtopics PersecutionofDruze ListofDruze Religioussymbols  Religionportalvte Seealso:Druze§ Beliefs ReincarnationisaparamounttenetintheDruzefaith.[196]Thereisaneternaldualityofthebodyandthesoulanditisimpossibleforthesoultoexistwithoutthebody.Therefore,reincarnationsoccurinstantlyatone'sdeath.WhileintheHinduandBuddhistbeliefsystemasoulcanbetransmittedtoanylivingcreature,intheDruzebeliefsystemthisisnotpossibleandahumansoulwillonlytransfertoahumanbody.Furthermore,soulscannotbedividedintodifferentorseparatepartsandthenumberofsoulsexistingisfinite.[197] FewDruzesareabletorecalltheirpastbut,iftheyareabletotheyarecalledaNateq.Typicallysoulswhohavediedviolentdeathsintheirpreviousincarnationwillbeabletorecallmemories.Sincedeathisseenasaquicktransientstate,mourningisdiscouraged.[197]UnlikeotherAbrahamicfaiths,heavenandhellarespiritual.HeavenistheultimatehappinessreceivedwhensoulescapesthecycleofrebirthsandreuniteswiththeCreator,whilehellisconceptualizedasthebitternessofbeingunabletoreunitewiththeCreatorandescapefromthecycleofrebirth.[198] Hinduism[edit] Furtherinformation:Saṃsāra,Karma,andMoksha Hindusbelievetheselforsoul(atman)repeatedlytakesonaphysicalbody,untilmoksha. PartofaseriesonHinduism Hindus History Timeline Origins History IndusValleycivilisation HistoricalVedicreligion Dravidianfolkreligion Śramaṇa TribalreligionsinIndia Traditions Majortraditions Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Vaishnavism List Deities Trimurti Brahma Vishnu Shiva Tridevi Saraswati Lakshmi Parvati OthermajorDevas /Devis Vedic: Agni Ashvins Chandra Indra Prajapati Pushan Rudra Surya Ushas Varuna Vayu Post-Vedic: Dattatreya Durga Ganesha Hanuman Kali Kartikeya Krishna Kubera Radha Rama Shakti Sita Vishvakarma Concepts Worldview Cosmology Mythology Puranicchronology Ontology Tattvas Subtleelements Panchikarana Grosselements Guṇas Supremereality Brahman Nirguna Saguna Om Satcitananda God Ishvara GodinHinduism Godandgender Meaningoflife Dharma Artha Kama Moksha Stagesoflife Brahmacarya Grihastha Vanaprastha Sannyasa Threepathstoliberation Bhaktiyoga Jnanayoga Karmayoga Liberation Mokṣa-relatedtopics: Paramātman Maya Karma Saṃsāra Mind Ātman(self) Anātman(non-self) Sūkṣmaśarīra(subtlebody) Antaḥkaraṇa(mentalorgans) Prajña(wisdom) Ānanda(happiness) Viveka(discernment) Vairagya(dispassion) Sama(equanimity) Dama(temperance) Uparati(self-settledness) Titiksha(forbearance) Shraddha(faith) Samadhana(concentration) Arishadvargas(sixenemies) Ahamkara(attachment) Ethics Nitiśastra Yamas Niyama Ahimsa Achourya Aparigraha Brahmacarya Satya Damah Dayā Akrodha Arjava Santosha Tapas Svādhyāya Shaucha Mitahara Dāna Sourcesofdharma Epistemology Pratyakṣa(perception) Anumāṇa(inference) Upamāṇa(comparison,analogy) Arthāpatti(postulation,presumption) Anupalabdi(non-perception,negation) Śabda(word,testimony) Practices Worship,sacrifice,andcharity Puja Ārtī Prarthana Śrauta Temple Murti Bhakti Japa Bhajana Kīrtana Yajna Homa Tarpana Vrata Prāyaścitta Tirtha Yatra Tirthadana Matha Nritta-Nritya Dāna Seva Meditation Tāpas Dhyāna Samādhāna Nididhyāsana Yoga Sadhu Yogi Yogini Asana Sadhana Hathayoga Jnanayoga Bhaktiyoga Karmayoga Rajayoga KundaliniYoga Arts Bharatanatyam Kathak Kathakali Kuchipudi Manipuri Mohiniyattam Odissi Sattriya BhagavataMela Yakshagana DandiyaRaas Carnaticmusic PandavLila Kalaripayattu Silambam Adimurai Ritesofpassage Garbhadhana Pumsavana Simantonayana Jatakarma Namakarana Nishkramana Annaprashana Chudakarana Karnavedha Vidyarambha Upanayana Keshanta Ritushuddhi Samavartana Vivaha Antyeshti Festivals Diwali Holi Shivaratri Navaratri DurgaPuja Ramlila Vijayadashami-Dussehra RakshaBandhan GaneshChaturthi VasantPanchami RamaNavami Janmashtami Onam MakarSankranti KumbhaMela Pongal Ugadi Vaisakhi Bihu Puthandu Vishu RathaYatra Philosophicalschools SixAstikaschools Samkhya Yoga Nyaya Vaisheshika Mimamsa Vedanta Advaita Dvaita Vishishtadvaita AchintyaBhedaAbheda Shuddhadvaita Dvaitadvaita Akshar-PurushottamDarshan Otherschools Saiva Kapalika Pasupata Pratyabhijña Vaishnava Pancharatra Charvaka Gurus,sants,philosophers Ancient Agastya Angiras Aruni Ashtavakra Atri Bharadwaja Gotama Jaimini Jamadagni Kanada Kapila Kashyapa Patanjali Pāṇini Prashastapada Raikva SatyakamaJabala Valmiki Vashistha Vishvamitra Vyasa Yajnavalkya Medieval Abhinavagupta AdiShankara AkkaMahadevi AllamaPrabhu Alvars Basava Chaitanya Chakradhara Chāngadeva DaduDayal Eknath GangeshaUpadhyaya Gaudapada Gorakshanatha HaridasaThakur Harivansh JagannathaDasa JayantaBhatta Jayatīrtha JivaGoswami Jñāneśvara Kabir KanakaDasa KumārilaBhaṭṭa Madhusūdana Madhva Matsyendranatha MoryaGosavi Mukundarāja Namadeva NarahariTirtha NrusinhaSaraswatī Nayanars Nimbarka Prabhākara PurandaraDasa RaghavendraSwami RaghunathaSiromani RaghuttamaTirtha RamCharan Ramananda Ramanuja RamprasadSen Ravidas RupaGoswami SamarthRamdas Sankardev SatyanathaTirtha Siddheshwar SripadaSrivallabha Sripadaraja Surdas Swaminarayan ŚyāmaŚastri Tukaram Tulsidas Tyagaraja VācaspatiMiśra VadirajaTirtha Vallabha Valluvar VedantaDesika Vidyaranya Vyasaraja Modern Aurobindo BhaktivinodaThakur Chinmayananda DayanandaSaraswati JaggiVasudev KrishnanandaSaraswati MahavatarBabaji MaheshYogi NarayanaGuru Nigamananda NisargadattaMaharaj Prabhupada Radhakrishnan R.D.Ranade Ramakrishna RamanaMaharshi SaiBaba Sarasvati SatyadhyanaTirtha SiddharameshwarMaharaj Sivananda SwamiRamaTirtha SwamiRamdas SwamiSamarth SwamiShraddhanand Tibbetibaba Trailanga U.G.Krishnamurti UpasniMaharaj Vivekananda Yogananda Texts Sourcesandclassificationofscripture Śruti Smṛti Ācāra Ātmatuṣṭi Scriptures TimelineofHindutexts Vedas Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita Brahmana Aranyaka Upanishad Upanishads Rigveda: Aitareya Kaushitaki Yajurveda: Brihadaranyaka Isha Taittiriya Katha Shvetashvatara Maitri Samaveda: Chandogya Kena Atharvaveda: Mundaka Mandukya Prashna Vedangas Shiksha Chandas Vyakarana Nirukta Kalpa Jyotisha Otherscriptures BhagavadGita Agamas(Hinduism) OthertextsPuranas VishnuPurana BhagavataPurana DeviBhagavataPurana NāradeyaPurana VāmanaPurana MatsyaPurana GarudaPurana BrahmaPurana BrahmāndaPurana BrahmaVaivartaPurana BhavishyaPurana PadmaPurana AgniPurana ShivaPurana LingaPurana KūrmaPurana SkandaPurana VarahaPurana MārkandeyaPurana Itihasas Ramayana Mahabharata Upavedas Ayurveda Dhanurveda Gandharvaveda Sthapatyaveda Shastras,sutras,andsamhitas DharmaShastra ArthaŚastra ShilpaShastra Kamasutra BrahmaSutras SamkhyaSutras MimamsaSutras NyāyaSūtras VaiśeṣikaSūtra YogaSutras PramanaSutras CharakaSamhita SushrutaSamhita NatyaShastra Panchatantra DivyaPrabandha Tirumurai Ramcharitmanas YogaVasistha Swarayoga Panchadasi Stotrasandstutis KanakadhāraStotram ShivaStuti VayuStuti Tamilliterature Tirumurai DivyaPrabandham Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai Thiruppugal Tirukkural KambaRamayanam FiveGreatEpics EighteenGreaterTexts EighteenLesserTexts Aathichoodi IraiyanarAkapporul AbhiramiAnthadhi ThiruvilaiyadalPuranam VinayagarAgaval Society Varna Fourvarnas: Brahmana Kshatriya Vaishya Shudra Varna-less: Dalit Varna-relatedtopics: Jati Othersociety-relatedtopics: Discrimination Persecution Nationalism Hindutva Organisations Reformmovements Othertopics Hinduismbycountry BalineseHinduism Hinduculture Architecture Calendar Iconography Mythology Pilgrimagesites Hinduismandotherreligions JainismandHinduism /andBuddhism /andSikhism /andJudaism /andChristianity /andIslam Criticism Glossary Outline  Hinduismportalvte Thebodydies,asserttheHindutraditions,butnotthesoul,whichtheyassumetobetheeternalreality,indestructibleandbliss.[199]EverythingandallexistenceisbelievedtobeconnectedandcyclicalinmanyHinduism-sects,alllivingbeingscomposedoftwothings,thesoulandthebodyormatter.[200]ĀtmandoesnotchangeandcannotchangebyitsinnatenatureintheHindubelief.[200]CurrentKarmaimpactsthefuturecircumstancesinthislife,aswellasthefutureformsandrealmsoflives.[201]Goodintentandactionsleadtogoodfuture,badintentandactionsleadtobadfuture,impactinghowonereincarnates,intheHinduviewofexistence.[202] ThereisnopermanentheavenorhellinmostHinduism-sects.[203]Intheafterlife,basedonone'skarma,thesoulisrebornasanotherbeinginheaven,hell,oralivingbeingonearth(human,animal).[203]Gods,too,dieoncetheirpastkarmicmeritrunsout,asdothoseinhell,andtheyreturngettinganotherchanceonearth.Thisreincarnationcontinues,endlesslyincycles,untiloneembarksonaspiritualpursuit,realizesself-knowledge,andtherebygainsmokṣa,thefinalreleaseoutofthereincarnationcycles.[204]Thisreleaseisbelievedtobeastateofutterbliss,whichHindutraditionsbelieveiseitherrelatedoridenticaltoBrahman,theunchangingrealitythatexistedbeforethecreationofuniverse,continuestoexist,andshallexistaftertheuniverseends.[205][206][207] TheUpanishads,partofthescripturesoftheHindutraditions,primarilyfocusontheliberationfromreincarnation.[208][209]TheBhagavadGitadiscussesvariouspathstoliberation.[199]TheUpanishads,statesHaroldCoward,offera"veryoptimisticviewregardingtheperfectibilityofhumannature,"andthegoalofhumaneffortinthesetextsisacontinuousjourneytoself-perfectionandself-knowledgesoastoendSaṃsāra—theendlesscycleofrebirthandredeath.[210]TheaimofspiritualquestintheUpanishadictraditionsisfindthetrueselfwithinandtoknowone'ssoul,astatethattheyassertleadstoblissfulstateoffreedom,moksha.[211] TheBhagavadGitastates: Justasinthebodychildhood,adulthoodandoldagehappentoanembodiedbeing.Soalsohe(theembodiedbeing)acquiresanotherbody.Thewiseoneisnotdeludedaboutthis.(2:13)[212] As,aftercastingawaywornoutgarments,amanlatertakesnewones.Soaftercastingawaywornoutbodies,theembodiedSelfencountersothernewones.(2:22)[213] Whenanembodiedbeingtranscends,thesethreequalitieswhicharethesourceofthebody,Releasedfrombirth,death,oldageandpain,heattainsimmortality.(14:20)[214] ThereareinternaldifferenceswithinHindutraditionsonreincarnationandthestateofmoksha.Forexample,thedualisticdevotionaltraditionssuchasMadhvacharya'sDvaitaVedantatraditionofHinduismchampionatheisticpremise,assertthathumansoulandBrahmanaredifferent,lovingdevotiontoBrahman(godVishnuinMadhvacharya'stheology)isthemeanstoreleasefromSamsara,itisthegraceofGodwhichleadstomoksha,andspiritualliberationisachievableonlyinafter-life(videhamukti).[215]Thenon-dualistictraditionssuchasAdiShankara'sAdvaitaVedantatraditionofHinduismchampionamonisticpremise,assertingthattheindividualhumansoulandBrahmanareidentical,onlyignorance,impulsivenessandinertialeadstosufferingthroughSaṃsāra,inrealitytherearenodualities,meditationandself-knowledgeisthepathtoliberation,therealizationthatone'ssoulisidenticaltoBrahmanismoksha,andspiritualliberationisachievableinthislife(jivanmukti).[80][216] Islam[edit] MostIslamicschoolsofthoughtrejectanyideaofreincarnationoflivingbeings.[217][218][219]Itteachesalinearconceptoflife,whereinahumanbeinghasonlyonelifeandupondeathheorsheisjudgedbyGod,thenrewardedinheavenorpunishedinhell.[217][220]IslamteachesfinalresurrectionandJudgementDay,[218]butthereisnoprospectforthereincarnationofahumanbeingintoadifferentbodyorbeing.[217]DuringtheearlyhistoryofIslam,someoftheCaliphspersecutedallreincarnation-believingpeople,suchasManichaeism,tothepointofextinctioninMesopotamiaandPersia(moderndayIraqandIran).[218]However,someMuslimminoritysectssuchasthosefoundamongSufis,andsomeMuslimsinSouthAsiaandIndonesiahaveretainedtheirpre-IslamicHinduandBuddhistbeliefsinreincarnation.[218]Forinstance,historically,SouthAsianIsma'ilisperformedchantasyearly,oneofwhichisforseekingforgivenessofsinscommittedinpastlives.HoweverInayatKhanhascriticizedtheideaasunhelpfultothespiritualseeker.[221] FromtheteachingsofModernSufiSheikhM.R.BawaMuhaiyadeen(GuruBawa);aperson'sstatecontinuouslychangesduringhisonelifetime(angry/violentatonceandbeinggentle/niceinanother).Sowhenaperson'sstatechanges,hispreviousstatedies.Eventhoughitdies,theearlierstate(ofanger)willbereborninanotherminute.AccordingtoGuruBawa;thechangingofaperson'sstateisdescribedas“rebirth”orreincarnation,thisshouldnotbeconfusedwiththephysicaldeath&rebirth.AlthoughsomescholarswronglymisquotethatGuruBawaacceptsthecommonbeliefofreincarnation.ForGuruBawa,thereincarnationisspiritual,perhapsinkind,andwitheachrebirthastageofconsciousnessisremoved.Thefirstbirthconsistofsixconsciousnessandwitheachrebirth,astageisremoveduntiloneisbornwithsinglestageofconsciousness,suchasatree,shruboraflowerifheatleastholdgoodprincipalsinlaststageofconsciousness.Ifnot,hewillbebornasawormorsomethingsimilar.[222] Ghulatsects[edit] TheideaofreincarnationisacceptedbyafewunorthodoxMuslimsects,particularlyoftheGhulat.[223]Alawitesholdthattheywereoriginallystarsordivinelightsthatwerecastoutofheaventhroughdisobedienceandmustundergorepeatedreincarnation(ormetempsychosis)beforereturningtoheaven.[224]TheycanbereincarnatedasChristiansorothersthroughsinandasanimalsiftheybecomeinfidels.[225] Jainism[edit] Furtherinformation:Saṃsāra(Jainism)andKarmainJainism 17th-centuryclothpaintingdepictingsevenlevelsofJainhellaccordingtoJaincosmology.Leftpaneldepictsthedemi-godandhisanimalvehiclepresidingovereachhell. PartofaseriesonJainism Jains History Timeline Philosophy Anekantavada Cosmology Ahimsa Karma Dharma Mokṣa KevalaJnana Dravya Tattva Brahmacarya Aparigraha Gunasthana Saṃsāra EthicsEthicsofJainism Mahavratas(majorvows) Ahiṃsā(non-violence) Satya(truth) Asteya(non-stealing) Brahmacarya(chastity) Aparigraha(non-possession) Anuvratas(furthervows) Sāmāyika Sallekhana Jainprayers BhaktamaraStotra MicchamiDukkadam Ṇamōkāramantra JaiJinendra Majorfigures The24Tirthankaras Rishabha Pārśva Mahavira Arihant Ganadhara Kundakunda Siddhasena Samantabhadra Haribhadra Yashovijaya MajorsectsSchoolsandBranches Digambara Śvētāmbara Jainliterature Samayasāra(Digambara) Pravachanasara(Digambara) Agama(Shwetambara) TattvarthaSutra Dravyasamgraha(Digambara) KalpaSūtra(Shwetambara) Uttaradhyayana(Shwetambara) CīvakaCintāmaṇi Silappatikaram Valayapathi Festivals Diwali MahavirJanmaKalyanak Paryushana Samvatsari PilgrimagesTirth Abu Palitana Girnar Shikharji Shravanabelagola Other Temples Jainflag Jainsymbols ParasparopagrahoJivanam Topicslist Index  Religionportalvte InJainism,thereincarnationdoctrine,alongwithitstheoriesofSaṃsāraandKarma,arecentraltoitstheologicalfoundations,asevidencedbytheextensiveliteratureonitinthemajorsectsofJainism,andtheirpioneeringideasonthesetopicsfromtheearliesttimesoftheJainatradition.[44][45]ReincarnationincontemporaryJainismtraditionsisthebeliefthattheworldlylifeischaracterizedbycontinuousrebirthsandsufferinginvariousrealmsofexistence.[46][45][226] KarmaformsacentralandfundamentalpartofJainfaith,beingintricatelyconnectedtootherofitsphilosophicalconceptsliketransmigration,reincarnation,liberation,non-violence(ahiṃsā)andnon-attachment,amongothers.Actionsareseentohaveconsequences:someimmediate,somedelayed,evenintofutureincarnations.Sothedoctrineofkarmaisnotconsideredsimplyinrelationtoonelife-time,butalsoinrelationtobothfutureincarnationsandpastlives.[227]UttarādhyayanaSūtra3.3–4states:"Thejīvaorthesoulissometimesbornintheworldofgods,sometimesinhell.Sometimesitacquiresthebodyofademon;allthishappensonaccountofitskarma.Thisjīvasometimestakesbirthasaworm,asaninsectorasanant."[228]Thetextfurtherstates(32.7):"Karmaistherootofbirthanddeath.Thesoulsboundbykarmagoroundandroundinthecycleofexistence."[228] Actionsandemotionsinthecurrentlifetimeaffectfutureincarnationsdependingonthenatureoftheparticularkarma.Forexample,agoodandvirtuouslifeindicatesalatentdesiretoexperiencegoodandvirtuousthemesoflife.Therefore,suchapersonattractskarmathatensuresthattheirfuturebirthswillallowthemtoexperienceandmanifesttheirvirtuesandgoodfeelingsunhindered.[229]Inthiscase,theymaytakebirthinheavenorinaprosperousandvirtuoushumanfamily.Ontheotherhand,apersonwhohasindulgedinimmoraldeeds,orwithacrueldisposition,indicatesalatentdesiretoexperiencecruelthemesoflife.[230]Asanaturalconsequence,theywillattractkarmawhichwillensurethattheyarereincarnatedinhell,orinlowerlifeforms,toenabletheirsoultoexperiencethecruelthemesoflife.[230] Thereisnoretribution,judgmentorrewardinvolvedbutanaturalconsequencesofthechoicesinlifemadeeitherknowinglyorunknowingly.Hence,whateversufferingorpleasurethatasoulmaybeexperiencinginitspresentlifeisonaccountofchoicesthatithasmadeinthepast.[231]Asaresultofthisdoctrine,Jainismattributessupremeimportancetopurethinkingandmoralbehavior.[232] TheJaintextspostulatefourgatis,thatisstates-of-existenceorbirth-categories,withinwhichthesoultransmigrates.Thefourgatisare:deva(demigods),manuṣya(humans),nāraki(hellbeings),andtiryañca(animals,plants,andmicroorganisms).[233]ThefourgatishavefourcorrespondingrealmsorhabitationlevelsintheverticallytieredJainuniverse:devaoccupythehigherlevelswheretheheavensaresituated;manuṣyaandtiryañcaoccupythemiddlelevels;andnārakioccupythelowerlevelswheresevenhellsaresituated.[233] Single-sensedsouls,however,callednigoda,[234]andelement-bodiedsoulspervadealltiersofthisuniverse.Nigodasaresoulsatthebottomendoftheexistentialhierarchy.Theyaresotinyandundifferentiated,thattheylackevenindividualbodies,livingincolonies.AccordingtoJaintexts,thisinfinityofnigodascanalsobefoundinplanttissues,rootvegetablesandanimalbodies.[235]Dependingonitskarma,asoultransmigratesandreincarnateswithinthescopeofthiscosmologyofdestinies.Thefourmaindestiniesarefurtherdividedintosub-categoriesandstillsmallersub-sub-categories.Inall,Jaintextsspeakofacycleof8.4millionbirthdestiniesinwhichsoulsfindthemselvesagainandagainastheycyclewithinsamsara.[236] InJainism,Godhasnoroletoplayinanindividual'sdestiny;one'spersonaldestinyisnotseenasaconsequenceofanysystemofrewardorpunishment,butratherasaresultofitsownpersonalkarma.AtextfromavolumeoftheancientJaincanon,Bhagvatisūtra8.9.9,linksspecificstatesofexistencetospecifickarmas.Violentdeeds,killingofcreatureshavingfivesenseorgans,eatingfish,andsoon,leadtorebirthinhell.Deception,fraudandfalsehoodleadtorebirthintheanimalandvegetableworld.Kindness,compassionandhumblecharacterresultinhumanbirth;whileausteritiesandthemakingandkeepingofvowsleadtorebirthinheaven.[237] Eachsoulisthusresponsibleforitsownpredicament,aswellasitsownsalvation.Accumulatedkarmarepresentasumtotalofallunfulfilleddesires,attachmentsandaspirationsofasoul.[238][239]Itenablesthesoultoexperiencethevariousthemesofthelivesthatitdesirestoexperience.[238]Henceasoulmaytransmigratefromonelifeformtoanotherforcountlessofyears,takingwithitthekarmathatithasearned,untilitfindsconditionsthatbringabouttherequiredfruits.Incertainphilosophies,heavensandhellsareoftenviewedasplacesforeternalsalvationoreternaldamnationforgoodandbaddeeds.ButaccordingtoJainism,suchplaces,includingtheeartharesimplytheplaceswhichallowthesoultoexperienceitsunfulfilledkarma.[240] Judaism[edit] Seealso:Gilgul PartofaseriesonKabbalah Concepts EinSof Tzimtzum Ohr AyinandYesh Sefirot FourWorlds Sederhishtalshelut TreeofLife Merkavah Jewishangelichierarchy Shekhinah Partzufim Qliphoth TohuandTikun Sparksofholiness Messianicrectification Gilgul Kabbalisticastrology Gematria Notarikon Temurah NamesofGodinJudaism Shemhamphorasch Tzadik TzadikimNistarim AnthropomorphisminKabbalah Panentheism History Pre-KabbalisticJewishmysticism Tannaim Heichalot SeferYetzirah ChassideiAshkenaz Medieval Bahir Toledanotradition PropheticKabbalah Zohar KabbalisticcommentariesontheBible MainstreamdisplacementofrationalismwithKabbalah Renaissance SelectiveinfluenceonWesternthought HermeticQabalah MysticismafterSpanishexpulsion Mysticsof16th-centurySafed CordoveranKabbalah LurianicKabbalah Maharal'sthought PopularKabbalisticMussar Earlymodern BaalShem-Nistarim Sabbateanmysticalheresies Emden–Eybeschutzcontroversy ImmigrationtotheLandofIsrael TraditionalOrientalKabbalists BeitElSynagogue EasternEuropeanJudaism HasidicJudaism /philosophy LithuanianJews Hasidic-Mitnagdicschism Modern Hasidicdynasties MysticisminreligiousZionism AcademicinterestinJewishmysticism Non-OrthodoxinterestinJewishmysticism English JamesLees' Practices Torahstudy Mysticalexegesis Mitzvot Minhag Customaryimmersioninmikveh Meditation Kavanot Teshuvah Deveikut Prayer Nusach TikkunChatzot TikkunLeilShavuot PilgrimagetoTzadik Pilgrimagetoholygrave LagBaOmeratMeron Asceticism PracticalKabbalah People 100s FourWhoEnteredthePardes SimeonbarYochai 1100s IsaactheBlind Azriel 1200s Nahmanides AbrahamAbulafia JosephbenAbrahamGikatilla MosesdeLeon MenahemRecanati 1300s BahyabenAsher 1400s 1500s MeiribnGabbai JosephKaro ShlomoAlkabetz MosheAlshich MosheCordovero IsaacLuria ChaimVital JudahLoewbenBezalel 1600s IsaiahHorowitz AbrahamAzulai 1700s ChaimibnAttar BaalShemTov DovBerofMezeritch MosheChaimLuzzatto ShalomSharabi VilnaGaon ChaimJosephDavidAzulai NathanAdler SchneurZalmanofLiadi ChaimVolozhin 1800s NachmanofBreslov BenIshChai ShlomoEliyashiv 1900s AbrahamIsaacKook YehudaAshlag BabaSali MenachemMendelSchneerson Role History Torah Tanakh Prophecy RuachHaKodesh Pardesexegesis Talmudicalhermeneutics Midrash JewishcommentariesontheBible OralTorah ErasofRabbinicJudaism GenerationaldescentinHalacha GenerationalascentinKabbalah Rabbinicliterature Talmudictheology Halakha Aggadah Hakira ClassicMussarliterature AshkenaziJudaism SephardiJudaism ModernJewishphilosophies Jewishstudies Topics GodinJudaism Divinetranscendence Divineimmanence Freewill Divineprovidence Kabbalisticreasonsforthe613Mitzvot Jewishprinciplesoffaith Jewisheschatology Primarytexts vte Jewishmysticaltexts(theKabbalah),fromtheirclassicMedievalcanononward,teachabeliefinGilgulNeshamot(Hebrewformetempsychosis;literally'soulcycle';pluralgilgulim).TheZoharandtheSeferHaBahirspecificallydiscussreincarnation.ItisacommonbeliefincontemporaryHasidicJudaism,whichregardstheKabbalahassacredandauthoritative,thoughunderstoodinlightofamoreinnatepsychologicalmysticism.Kabbalahalsoteachesthat"ThesoulofMosesisreincarnatedineverygeneration."[241]Other,Non-Hasidic,OrthodoxJewishgroupswhilenotplacingaheavyemphasisonreincarnation,doacknowledgeitasavalidteaching.[242]ItspopularizationenteredmodernsecularYiddishliteratureandfolkmotif. The16thcenturymysticalrenaissanceincommunalSafedreplacedscholasticRationalismasmainstreamtraditionalJewishtheology,bothinscholarlycirclesandinthepopularimagination.ReferencestogilgulinformerKabbalahbecamesystematizedaspartofthemetaphysicalpurposeofcreation.IsaacLuria(theAri)broughttheissuetothecentreofhisnewmysticalarticulation,forthefirsttime,andadvocatedidentificationofthereincarnationsofhistoricJewishfiguresthatwerecompiledbyHaimVitalinhisShaarHaGilgulim.[243]GilguliscontrastedwiththeotherprocessesinKabbalahofIbbur('pregnancy'),theattachmentofasecondsoultoanindividualfor(orby)goodmeans,andDybuk('possession'),theattachmentofaspirit,demon,etc.toanindividualfor(orby)"bad"means. InLurianicKabbalah,reincarnationisnotretributiveorfatalistic,butanexpressionofDivinecompassion,themicrocosmofthedoctrineofcosmicrectificationofcreation.Gilgulisaheavenlyagreementwiththeindividualsoul,conditionaluponcircumstances.Luria'sradicalsystemfocusedonrectificationoftheDivinesoul,playedoutthroughCreation.Thetrueessenceofanythingisthedivinesparkwithinthatgivesitexistence.Evenastoneorleafpossessessuchasoulthat"cameintothisworldtoreceivearectification."Ahumansoulmayoccasionallybeexiledintolowerinanimate,vegetativeoranimalcreations.Themostbasiccomponentofthesoul,thenefesh,mustleaveatthecessationofbloodproduction.Therearefourothersoulcomponentsanddifferentnationsoftheworldpossessdifferentformsofsoulswithdifferentpurposes.EachJewishsoulisreincarnatedinordertofulfilleachofthe613Mosaiccommandmentsthatelevateaparticularsparkofholinessassociatedwitheachcommandment.OncealltheSparksareredeemedtotheirspiritualsource,theMessianicErabegins.Non-Jewishobservanceofthe7LawsofNoahassiststheJewishpeople,thoughBiblicaladversariesofIsraelreincarnatetooppose. AmongthemanyrabbiswhoacceptedreincarnationareNahmanides(theRamban)andRabbenuBahyabenAsher,LeviibnHabib(theRalbah),ShelomohAlkabez,MosesCordovero,MosesChaimLuzzatto;earlyHasidicmasterssuchastheBaalShemTov,SchneurZalmanofLiadiandNachmanofBreslov,aswellasvirtuallyalllaterHasidicmasters;contemporaryHasidicteacherssuchasDovBerPinson,MosheWeinbergerandJoelLandau;andkeyMitnagdicleaders,suchastheVilnaGaonandChaimVolozhinandtheirschool,aswellasRabbiShalomSharabi(knownattheRaShaSH),theBenIshChaiofBaghdad,andtheBabaSali.[244]RabbiswhohaverejectedtheideaincludeSaadiaGaon,DavidKimhi,HasdaiCrescas,JosephAlbo,AbrahamibnDaud,LeondeModena,SolomonbenAderet,MaimonidesandAsherbenJehiel.AmongtheGeonim,HaiGaonarguedinfavourofgilgulim. Ho-Chunk[edit] ReincarnationisanintrinsicpartofsomenorthernNativeAmericanandInuittraditions.[245]InthenowheavilyChristianPolarNorth(nowmainlypartsofGreenlandandNunavut),theconceptofreincarnationisenshrinedintheInuitlanguage.[246] Thefollowingisastoryofhuman-to-humanreincarnationastoldbyThunderCloud,aWinnebago(Ho-Chunktribe)shamanreferredtoasT.C.inthenarrative.HereT.C.talksabouthistwopreviouslivesandhowhediedandcamebackagaintothishisthirdlifetime.Hedescribeshistimebetweenlives,whenhewas“blessed”byEarthMakerandalltheabidingspiritsandgivenspecialpowers,includingtheabilitytohealthesick. T.C.'sAccountofhistworeincarnations: I(myghost)wastakentotheplacewherethesunsets(thewest)....Whileatthatplace,IthoughtIwouldcomebacktoearthagain,andtheoldmanwithwhomIwasstayingsaidtome,“Myson,didyounotspeakaboutwantingtogototheearthagain?”Ihad,asamatteroffact,onlythoughtofit,yetheknewwhatIwanted.Thenhesaidtome,“Youcango,butyoumustaskthechieffirst.”ThenIwentandtoldthechiefofthevillageofmydesire,andhesaidtome,“Youmaygoandobtainyourrevengeuponthepeoplewhokilledyourrelativesandyou.”ThenIwasbroughtdowntoearth....ThereIliveduntilIdiedofoldage....AsIwaslying[inmygrave],someonesaidtome,“Come,letusgoaway.”Sothenwewenttowardthesettingofthesun.Therewecametoavillagewherewemetallthedead....FromthatplaceIcametothisearthagainforthethirdtime,andhereIam.— Radin(1923)[247] Sikhism[edit] Foundedinthe15thcentury,Sikhism'sfounderGuruNanakhadachoicebetweenthecyclicalreincarnationconceptofancientIndianreligionsandthelinearconceptofIslam,hechosethecyclicalconceptoftime.[248][249]SikhismteachesreincarnationtheorysimilartothoseinHinduism,butwithsomedifferencesfromitstraditionaldoctrines.[250]SikhrebirththeoriesaboutthenatureofexistencearesimilartoideasthatdevelopedduringthedevotionalBhaktimovementparticularlywithinsomeVaishnavatraditions,whichdefineliberationasastateofunionwithGodattainedthroughthegraceofGod.[251][252][253] ThedoctrinesofSikhismteachthatthesoulexists,andispassedfromonebodytoanotherinendlesscyclesofSaṃsāra,untilliberationfromthedeathandrebirthcycle.Eachbirthbeginswithkarma(karam),andtheseactionsleaveakarmicsignature(karni)onone'ssoulwhichinfluencesfuturerebirths,butitisGodwhosegracethatliberatesfromthedeathandrebirthcycle.[250]Thewayoutofthereincarnationcycle,assertsSikhism,istoliveanethicallife,devoteoneselftoGodandconstantlyrememberGod'sname.[250]ThepreceptsofSikhismencouragethebhaktiofOneLordformukti(liberationfromthedeathandrebirthcycle).[250][254] Newreligiousandspiritualmovements[edit] PartofaseriesontheParanormal Mainarticles Astralprojection Astrology Aura Bilocation Breatharianism Clairvoyance Closeencounter Coldspot Crystalgazing Conjuration Cryptozoology Demonicpossession Demonology Ectoplasm Electronicvoicephenomenon Exorcism Extrasensoryperception Forteana Fortune-telling Ghosthunting Indigochildren Magic Mediumship Miracle Occult Orb Ouija Paranormalfiction Paranormaltelevision Precognition Preternatural Psychic Psychicreading Psychokinesis Psychometry Reincarnation Remoteviewing Retrocognition Spiritphotography Spiritpossession Spiritworld Spiritualism StoneTape Supernatural Telepathy Table-turning Ufology Reportedlyhauntedlocations: India UnitedKingdom UnitedStates World Skepticism Coldreading CommitteeforSkepticalInquiry Debunking Hoax JamesRandiEducationalFoundation Magicalthinking Prizesforevidenceoftheparanormal Pseudoskepticism Scientificliteracy Scientificskepticism Parapsychology Anomalousexperiences Apparitionalexperiences Brainwashing Deathandculture Falseawakening Hypnosis Ideomotorphenomenon Out-of-bodyexperiences Parapsychology Synchronicity Related Anomalistics Argumentfromignorance Argumentumadpopulum Bandwagoneffect Beggingthequestion Cognitivedissonance Communalreinforcement Fallacy Falsifiability Fringescience Groupthink Hypnosis Junkscience Protoscience Pseudoscience Scientificevidence Scientificmethod Superstition Uncertainty Urbanlegend vte Spiritism[edit] TombofAllanKardec,founderofspiritism.TheinscriptionsaysinFrench"Tobeborn,die,againbereborn,andsoprogressunceasingly,suchisthelaw". Spiritism,aChristianphilosophycodifiedinthe19thcenturybytheFrencheducatorAllanKardec,teachesreincarnationorrebirthintohumanlifeafterdeath.Accordingtothisdoctrine,freewillandcauseandeffectarethecorollariesofreincarnation,andreincarnationprovidesamechanismforaperson'sspiritualevolutioninsuccessivelives.[255] Theosophy[edit] Thissectiondoesnotciteanysources.Pleasehelpimprovethissectionbyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(December2020)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) TheTheosophicalSocietydrawsmuchofitsinspirationfromIndia.IntheTheosophicalworld-viewreincarnationisthevastrhythmicprocessbywhichthesoul,thepartofapersonwhichbelongstotheformlessnon-materialandtimelessworlds,unfoldsitsspiritualpowersintheworldandcomestoknowitself.Itdescendsfromsublime,free,spiritualrealmsandgathersexperiencethroughitsefforttoexpressitselfintheworld.Afterwardsthereisawithdrawalfromthephysicalplanetosuccessivelyhigherlevelsofreality,indeath,apurificationandassimilationofthepastlife.Havingcastoffallinstrumentsofpersonalexperienceitstandsagaininitsspiritualandformlessnature,readytobeginitsnextrhythmicmanifestation,everylifetimebringingitclosertocompleteself-knowledgeandself-expression.Howeveritmayattractoldmental,emotional,andenergetickarmapatternstoformthenewpersonality. Anthroposophy[edit] AnthroposophydescribesreincarnationfromthepointofviewofWesternphilosophyandculture.Theegoisbelievedtotransmutetransientsoulexperiencesintouniversalsthatformthebasisforanindividualitythatcanendureafterdeath.Theseuniversalsincludeideas,whichareintersubjectiveandthustranscendthepurelypersonal(spiritualconsciousness),intentionallyformedhumancharacter(spirituallife),andbecomingafullyconscioushumanbeing(spiritualhumanity).RudolfSteinerdescribedboththegeneralprincipleshebelievedtobeoperativeinreincarnation,suchasthatone'swillactivityinonelifeformsthebasisforthethinkingofthenext,[256]andanumberofsuccessivelivesofvariousindividualities.[257] Similarly,otherfamouspeople'slifestoriesarenotprimarilytheresultofgenes,upbringingorbiographicalvicissitudes.Steinerrelatesthatalargeestateinnorth-easternFrancewasheldduringtheearlyMiddleAgesbyamartialfeudallord.Duringamilitarycampaign,thisestatewascapturedbyarival.Thepreviousownerhadnomeansofretaliating,andwasforcedtoseehispropertylosttoanenemy.Hewasfilledwithasmolderingresentmenttowardsthepropertiedclasses,notonlyfortheremainderofhislifeintheMiddleAges,butalsoinamuchlaterincarnation—asKarlMarx.HisrivalwasrebornasFriedrichEngels.[258]— OlavHammer,Coda.OnBeliefandEvidence Modernastrology[edit] InspiredbyHelenaBlavatsky'smajorworks,includingIsisUnveiledandTheSecretDoctrine,astrologersintheearlytwentieth-centuryintegratedtheconceptsofkarmaandreincarnationintothepracticeofWesternastrology.NotableastrologerswhoadvancedthisdevelopmentincludedAlanLeo,CharlesE.O.Carter,MarcEdmundJones,andDaneRudhyar.AnewsynthesisofEastandWestresultedasHinduandBuddhistconceptsofreincarnationwerefusedwithWesternastrology'sdeeprootsinHermeticismandNeoplatonism.InthecaseofRudhyar,thissynthesiswasenhancedwiththeadditionofJungiandepthpsychology.[259]Thisdynamicintegrationofastrology,reincarnationanddepthpsychologyhascontinuedintothemodernerawiththeworkofastrologersStevenForrestandJeffreyWolfGreen.TheirrespectiveschoolsofEvolutionaryAstrologyarebasedon"anacceptanceofthefactthathumanbeingsincarnateinasuccessionoflifetimes."[260] Scientology[edit] Seealso:Scientologybeliefsandpractices Pastreincarnation,usuallytermedpastlives,isakeypartoftheprinciplesandpracticesoftheChurchofScientology.Scientologistsbelievethatthehumanindividualisactuallyathetan,animmortalspiritualentity,thathasfallenintoadegradedstateasaresultofpast-lifeexperiences.Scientologyauditingisintendedtofreethepersonofthesepast-lifetraumasandrecoverpast-lifememory,leadingtoahigherstateofspiritualawareness. Thisideaisechoedintheirhighestfraternalreligiousorder,SeaOrg,whosemottois"Revenimus"('WeComeBack'),andwhosememberssigna"billion-yearcontract"asasignofcommitmenttothatideal.L.RonHubbard,thefounderofScientology,doesnotusetheword"reincarnation"todescribeitsbeliefs,notingthat:"Thecommondefinitionofreincarnationhasbeenalteredfromitsoriginalmeaning.Thewordhascometomean'tobebornagainindifferentlifeforms'whereasitsactualdefinitionis'tobebornagainintothefleshofanotherbody.'Scientologyascribestothislatter,originaldefinitionofreincarnation."[261] ThefirstwritingsinScientologyregardingpastlivesdatefromaround1951andslightlyearlier.In1960,HubbardpublishedabookonpastlivesentitledHaveYouLivedBeforeThisLife.In1968hewroteMissionintoTime,areportonafive-weeksailingexpeditiontoSardinia,SicilyandCarthagetoseeifspecificevidencecouldbefoundtosubstantiateL.RonHubbard'srecallofincidentsinhisownpast,centuriesago. Wicca[edit] Wiccaisaneo-paganreligionfocusedonnature,guidedbythephilosophyofWiccanRedethatadvocatesthetenets"HarmNone,DoAsYeWill".Wiccansbelieveinaformofkarmicreturnwhereone'sdeedsarereturned,eitherinthecurrentlifeorinanotherlife,threefoldormultipletimesinordertoteachonelessons(theThreefoldLaw).ReincarnationisthereforeanacceptedpartoftheWiccanfaith.[262][fullcitationneeded]Wiccansalsobelievethatdeathandafterlifeareimportantexperiencesforthesoultotransformandprepareforfuturelifetimes.[citationneeded] Reincarnationandscience[edit] Seealso:Relationshipbetweenreligionandscience The14thDalaiLamahasstatedhisbeliefthatitwouldbedifficultforsciencetodisprovereincarnation. Whiletherehasbeennoscientificconfirmationofthephysicalrealityofreincarnation,wherethesubjecthasbeendiscussed,therearequestionsofwhetherandhowsuchbeliefsmaybejustifiedwithinthediscourseofscienceandreligion.Somechampionsofacademicparapsychologyhavearguedthattheyhavescientificevidenceevenwhiletheirdetractorshaveaccusedthemofpracticingaformofpseudoscience.[263][264]SkepticCarlSaganaskedtheDalaiLamawhathewoulddoifafundamentaltenetofhisreligion(reincarnation)weredefinitivelydisprovedbyscience.TheDalaiLamaanswered,"Ifsciencecandisprovereincarnation,TibetanBuddhismwouldabandonreincarnation…butit'sgoingtobemightyhardtodisprovereincarnation."[265]Saganconsideredclaimsofmemoriesofpastlivestobeworthyofresearch,althoughheconsideredreincarnationtobeanunlikelyexplanationforthese.[266] Claimsofpastlives[edit] Overaperiodof40years,psychiatristIanStevenson,fromtheUniversityofVirginia,conductedmorethan2,500casestudiesofyoungchildrenwhoclaimedtorememberpastlives.Hepublishedtwelvebooks,includingTwentyCasesSuggestiveofReincarnation,ReincarnationandBiology:AContributiontotheEtiologyofBirthmarksandBirthDefects(atwo-partmonograph),andWhereReincarnationandBiologyIntersect.Inhiscaseshereportedthechild'sstatementsandtestimonyfromfamilymembersandothers,oftenalongwithwhatheconsideredtobecorrelatestoadeceasedpersonwhoinsomewaysseemedtomatchthechild'smemory.Stevensonalsoinvestigatedcaseswherehethoughtthatbirthmarksandbirthdefectsseemedtomatchwoundsandscarsonthedeceased.Sometimesincludedinhisdocumentationweremedicalrecordslikeautopsyphotographs.[267]Asanyclaimofpastlifememoryissubjecttochargesoffalsememoriesandtheeasewithwhichsuchclaimscanbehoaxed,Stevensonexpectedcontroversyandskepticismofhisbeliefs.Hedidsearchfordisconfirmingevidenceandalternativeexplanationsforthereports,but,astheWashingtonPostreported,heoftenconcludedthatnonormalexplanationsufficed.[268] OtheracademicresearcherswhohaveundertakensimilarpursuitsincludeJimB.Tucker,AntoniaMills,[269]SatwantPasricha,GodwinSamararatne,andErlendurHaraldsson,butStevenson'spublicationsremainthemostwellknown.[270]Stevenson'sworkinthisregardwasimpressiveenoughtoCarlSaganthathereferredtowhatwereapparentlyStevenson'sinvestigationsinhisbookTheDemon-HauntedWorldasanexampleofcarefullycollectedempiricaldata,andthoughherejectedreincarnationasaparsimoniousexplanationforthestories,hewrotethatthephenomenonofallegedpast-lifememoriesshouldbefurtherresearched.[271][272]SamHarriscitedStevenson'sworksinhisbookTheEndofFaithaspartofabodyofdatathatseemstoattesttotherealityofpsychicphenomena,butthatonlyreliesonsubjectivepersonalexperience.[273][274] CriticsofStevenson'sclaimsincludethephilospherPaulEdwards,whocriticizedIanStevenson'saccountsofreincarnationasbeingpurelyanecdotalandcherry-picked.[275]Edwardsattributedthestoriestoselectivethinking,suggestion,andfalsememoriesthatresultfromthefamily'sorresearcher'sbeliefsystemsandthuscannotbecountedasempiricalevidence.[276]ThephilosopherKeithAugustinewroteincritiquethatthefactthat"thevastmajorityofStevenson'scasescomefromcountrieswhereareligiousbeliefinreincarnationisstrong,andrarelyelsewhere,seemstoindicatethatculturalconditioning(ratherthanreincarnation)generatesclaimsofspontaneouspast-lifememories."[277]Further,IanWilsonpointedoutthatalargenumberofStevenson'scasesconsistedofpoorchildrenrememberingwealthylivesorbelongingtoahighercaste.Inthesesocieties,claimsofreincarnationaresometimesusedasschemestoobtainmoneyfromthericherfamiliesofallegedformerincarnations.[278]Stevensonlaterpublishedabookofcasesfromaculturalareawherebeliefinreincarnationisnotmainstream,EuropeanCasesoftheReincarnationType.Evenstill,RobertBakerassertedthatallthepast-lifeexperiencesinvestigatedbyStevensonandotherparapsychologistsareunderstandableintermsofknownpsychologicalfactorsincludingamixtureofcryptomnesiaandconfabulation.[279]Edwardsalsoobjectedthatreincarnationinvokesassumptionsthatareinconsistentwithmodernscience.[280]Asthevastmajorityofpeopledonotrememberpreviouslivesandthereisnoempiricallydocumentedmechanismknownthatallowspersonalitytosurvivedeathandtraveltoanotherbody,positingtheexistenceofreincarnationissubjecttotheprinciplethat"extraordinaryclaimsrequireextraordinaryevidence".ResearcherssuchasStevensonacknowledgedtheselimitations.[268] Stevensonalsoclaimedtherewereahandfulofcasesthatsuggestedevidenceofxenoglossy,includingtwowhereasubjectunderhypnosisallegedlyconversedwithpeoplespeakingtheforeignlanguage,insteadofmerelybeingabletoreciteforeignwords.SarahThomason,alinguist(andskepticalresearcher)attheUniversityofMichigan,reanalyzedthesecases,concludingthat"thelinguisticevidenceistooweaktoprovidesupportfortheclaimsofxenoglossy."[281] Pastliferegression[edit] Somebelieversinreincarnation(Stevensonfamouslynotamongthem)givemuchimportancetosupposedpast-lifememoriesretrievedunderhypnosisduringpastliferegressions.PopularizedbypsychiatristBrianWeisswhoclaimshehasregressedmorethan4,000patientssince1980,[282][283]thetechniqueisoftenidentifiedasakindofpseudoscientificpractice.[284]Suchsupposedmemorieshavebeendocumentedtocontainhistoricalinaccuraciesoriginatingfrommodernpopularculture,commonbeliefsabouthistory,orbooksthatdiscusshistoricalevents.Experimentswithsubjectsundergoingpastliferegressionindicatethatabeliefinreincarnationandsuggestionsbythehypnotistarethetwomostimportantfactorsregardingthecontentsofmemoriesreported.[285][284][286]Theuseofhypnosisandsuggestivequestionscantendtoleavethesubjectparticularlylikelytoholddistortedorfalsememories.[287]Ratherthanrecallofapreviousexistence,thesourceofthememoriesismorelikelycryptomnesiaandconfabulationsthatcombineexperiences,knowledge,imaginationandsuggestionorguidancefromthehypnotist.Oncecreated,thosememoriesareindistinguishablefrommemoriesbasedoneventsthatoccurredduringthesubject'slife.[285][288] Past-liferegressionhasbeencritiquedforbeingunethicalonthegroundsthatitlacksanyevidencetosupportitsclaimsandthatitincreasesone'ssusceptibilitytofalsememories.LuisCordónstatesthatthiscanbeproblematicasitcreatesdelusionsundertheguiseoftherapy.Thememoriesareexperiencedasbeingasvividasthosebasedoneventsexperiencedinone'slifeandimpossibletodifferentiatefromtruememoriesofactualevents,andaccordinglyanydamagecanbedifficulttoundo.[288][289] APAaccreditedorganizationshavechallengedtheuseofpast-liferegressionsasatherapeuticmethod,callingitunethical.Additionally,thehypnoticmethodologythatunderpinspast-liferegressionhasbeencriticizedasplacingtheparticipantinavulnerableposition,susceptibletoimplantationoffalsememories.[289]Becausetheimplantationoffalsememoriesmaybeharmful,GabrielAndradearguesthatpast-liferegressionviolatestheprincipleoffirst,donoharm(non-maleficence),partoftheHippocraticOath.[289] Seealso[edit] AdaF.Kay ArthurFlowerdew ArthurGuirdham BarbroKarlén JoanGrant ShantiDevi Incarnation Karmicastrology Planesofexistence Pre-existence Reincarnationinpopularculture Soulmate References[edit] ^McClelland2010,pp. 24–29,171.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFMcClelland2010(help) ^abcdMarkJuergensmeyer&WadeClarkRoof2011,pp. 271–272.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFMark_JuergensmeyerWade_Clark_Roof2011(help) ^abcdStephenJ.Laumakis2008,pp. 90–99.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFStephen_J._Laumakis2008(help) ^RitaM.Gross(1993).BuddhismAfterPatriarchy:AFeministHistory,Analysis,andReconstructionofBuddhism.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.p. 148.ISBN 978-1-4384-0513-1. ^Flood,GavinD.(1996),AnIntroductiontoHinduism,CambridgeUniversityPress ^GananathObeyesekere,ImaginingKarma:EthicalTransformationinAmerindian,Buddhist,andGreekRebirth.UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2002,p.15. ^Crawley[fullcitationneeded] ^seeCharlesTaliaferro,PaulDraper,PhilipL.Quinn,ACompaniontoPhilosophyofReligion.JohnWileyandSons,2010,p.640,GoogleBooks ^Hitti,PhilipK(2007)[1924].OriginsoftheDruzePeopleandReligion,withExtractsfromtheirSacredWritings(NewEdition).ColumbiaUniversityOrientalStudies.28.London:Saqi.pp.13–14.ISBN 0-86356-690-1 ^Heindel,Max(1985)[1939,1908]TheRosicrucianChristianityLectures(CollectedWorks):TheRiddleofLifeandDeath.Oceanside,California.4thedition.ISBN 0-911274-84-7 ^AnimportantrecentworkdiscussingthemutualinfluenceofancientGreekandIndianphilosophyregardingthesemattersisTheShapeofAncientThoughtbyThomasMcEvilley ^abcdHaraldsson,Erlendur(January2006)."Popularpsychology,beliefinlifeafterdeathandreincarnationintheNordiccountries,WesternandEasternEurope".NordicPsychology.58(2):171–180.doi:10.1027/1901-2276.58.2.171.S2CID 143453837. ^"EncyclopædiaBritannica".Concise.britannica.com.Retrieved25June2016. ^abKeown2013,pp. 35–40.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFKeown2013(help) ^ChristopherKeyChapple(2006).JainismandEcology:NonviolenceintheWebofLife.MotilalBanarsidass.p. 39.ISBN 978-81-208-2045-6. ^OxfordDictionaries(2016)."Transmigration".OxfordUniversityPress.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJanuary5,2014. ^KarlSigmund."GödelExhibition:Gödel'sCentury".Goedelexhibition.at.Retrieved6December2011. ^metempsychosis,EtymologyDictionary,DouglasHarper(2015) ^CarlHuffman(2014),Pythagoras,4.1TheFateoftheSoul–MetempsychosisStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy,StanfordUniversity ^"HeartofHinduism:ReincarnationandSamsara".Hinduism.iskcon.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon19April2011.Retrieved6December2011. ^abMonierMonier-Williams(1872).ASanskrit-EnglishDictionary.OxfordUniversityPress.p. 582. ^RonaldWesleyNeufeldt(1986).KarmaandRebirth:PostClassicalDevelopments.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.pp. 88–89.ISBN 978-0-87395-990-2. ^ThomasWilliamRhysDavids;WilliamStede(1921).Pali-EnglishDictionary.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 95,144,151,361,475.ISBN 978-81-208-1144-7. ^JohnBowker2014,pp. 84–85.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFJohn_Bowker2014(help) ^GavinFlood(2010),Brill'sEncyclopediaofHinduism(Editor:KnutJacobsen),VolumeII,Brill,ISBN 978-90-04-17893-9,pp.881–884 ^Klostermaier,Klaus(1985)."MokṣaandCriticalTheory".PhilosophyEastandWest.35(1):61–71.doi:10.2307/1398681.JSTOR 1398681.ProQuest 1301471616. ^Thomas,NormanE.(April1988)."LiberationforLife:AHinduLiberationPhilosophy".Missiology:AnInternationalReview.16(2):149–162.doi:10.1177/009182968801600202.S2CID 170870237. ^GerhardOberhammer(1994),LaDélivrancedèscettevie:Jivanmukti,CollègedeFrance,Publicationsdel'InstitutdeCivilisationIndienne.Sériein-8°,Fasc.61,Édition-DiffusiondeBoccard(Paris),ISBN 978-2868030610,pp.1–9 ^Obeyesekere2005,pp. 1–2,108,126–128.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFObeyesekere2005(help) ^MarkJuergensmeyer&WadeClarkRoof2011,pp. 272–273.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFMark_JuergensmeyerWade_Clark_Roof2011(help) ^IrvingSteigerCooper(1920).Reincarnation:TheHopeoftheWorld.TheosophicalSocietyinAmerica.p. 15. ^DiodorusSiculusthoughtthedruidsmighthavebeeninfluencedbytheteachingsofPythagoras.DiodorusSiculusv.28.6;HippolytusPhilosophumenai.25. ^Flood,Gavin.Olivelle,Patrick.2003.TheBlackwellCompaniontoHinduism.Malden:Blackwell.pp.273–274."ThesecondhalfofthefirstmillenniumBCEwastheperiodthatcreatedmanyoftheideologicalandinstitutionalelementsthatcharacterizelaterIndianreligions.TherenouncertraditionplayedacentralroleduringthisformativeperiodofIndianreligioushistory....SomeofthefundamentalvaluesandbeliefsthatwegenerallyassociatewithIndianreligionsingeneralandHinduisminparticularwereinpartthecreationoftherenouncertradition.TheseincludethetwopillarsofIndiantheologies:samsara—thebeliefthatlifeinthisworldisoneofsufferingandsubjecttorepeateddeathsandbirths(rebirth);moksa/nirvana—thegoalofhumanexistence....." ^abDamienKeown(2013).Buddhism:AVeryShortIntroduction.OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 28,32–38.ISBN 978-0-19-966383-5. ^Laumakis,StephenJ.(2008).AnIntroductiontoBuddhistPhilosophy.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN 978-1139469661. ^GavinD.Flood,AnIntroductiontoHinduism,CambridgeUniversityPress(1996),UKISBN 0-521-43878-0p.86–"AthirdalternativeisthattheoriginoftransmigrationtheoryliesoutsideofvedicorsramanatraditionsinthetribalreligionsoftheGangesvalley,oreveninDravidiantraditionsofsouthIndia." ^A.M.Boyer:"Etudesurl'originedeladoctrinedusamsara."JournalAsiatique,(1901),Volume9,Issue18,S.451–453,459–468 ^YuvrajKrishan:BharatiyaVidyaBhavan,1997,ISBN 978-81-208-1233-8 ^abStephenJ.Laumakis2008,p. 90.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFStephen_J._Laumakis2008(help) ^R.D.Ranade(1926).AConstructiveSurveyofUpanishadicPhilosophy.BharatiyaVidyaBhavan.pp. 147–148.Therewedefinitelyknowthatthewholehymnisaddresstoadepartedspirit,andthepoet[oftheRigvedichymn]saysthatheisgoingtorecallthedepartedsoulinorderthatitmayreturnagainandlive." ^AtsushiHayakawa(2014).CirculationofFireintheVeda.LITVerlagMünster.pp. 66–67,101–103withfootnotes.ISBN 978-3-643-90472-0. ^A.M.Boyer(1901),"Etudesurl'originedeladoctrinedusamsara",JournalAsiatique,Volume9,Issue18,pp.451–453,459–468 ^ValleePussin(1917).ThewaytoNirvana:sixlecturesonancientBuddhismasadisciplineofsalvation.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 24–25. ^abPadmanabhJaini1980,pp. 217–236.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFPadmanabh_Jaini1980(help) ^abcdPaulDundas(2003).TheJains.Routledge.pp. 14–16,102–105.ISBN 978-0415266055. ^abPadmanabhJaini1980,pp. 226–228.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFPadmanabh_Jaini1980(help) ^KristiL.Wiley(2009).TheAtoZofJainism.Scarecrow.p. 186.ISBN 978-0-8108-6337-8. ^PadmanabhJaini1980,pp. 227–228.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFPadmanabh_Jaini1980(help) ^PaulDundas(2003).TheJains.Routledge.pp. 104–105.ISBN 978-0415266055. ^JefferyDLong(2013).Jainism:AnIntroduction.I.B.Tauris.pp. 36–37.ISBN 978-0-85773-656-7. ^PaulDundas(2003).TheJains.Routledge.pp. 55–59.ISBN 978-0415266055. ^JohnE.Cort(2001).JainsintheWorld:ReligiousValuesandIdeologyinIndia.OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 118–119.ISBN 978-0-19-803037-9. ^abcdeJeffWilson(2010).SaṃsāraandRebirth,inBuddhism.OxfordUniversityPress.doi:10.1093/obo/9780195393521-0141.ISBN 978-0195393521. ^abKevinTrainor(2004).Buddhism:TheIllustratedGuide.OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 62–63.ISBN 978-0-19-517398-7.;Quote:"Buddhistdoctrineholdsthatuntiltheyrealizenirvana,beingsareboundtoundergorebirthandredeathduetotheirhavingactedoutofignoranceanddesire,therebyproducingtheseedsofkarma". ^EdwardConze(2013).BuddhistThoughtinIndia:ThreePhasesofBuddhistPhilosophy.Routledge.p. 71.ISBN 978-1-134-54231-4.Nirvanaistheraisond’êtreofBuddhism,anditsultimatejustification. ^Gethin,Rupert(1998),FoundationsofBuddhism,OxfordUniversityPress,p. 119,ISBN 978-0192892232 ^PaulWilliams,AnthonyTribe,Buddhistthought:acompleteintroductiontotheIndiantradition.Routledge,2000,p.84. ^abMervFowler(1999).Buddhism:BeliefsandPractices.SussexAcademicPress.p. 65.ISBN 978-1-898723-66-0.ForavastmajorityofBuddhistsinTheravadincountries,however,theorderofmonksisseenbylayBuddhistsasameansofgainingthemostmeritinthehopeofaccumulatinggoodkarmaforabetterrebirth. ^ChristopherGowans(2004).PhilosophyoftheBuddha:AnIntroduction.Routledge.p. 169.ISBN 978-1-134-46973-4. ^RobertDeCaroli(2004).HauntingtheBuddha:IndianPopularReligionsandtheFormationofBuddhism.OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 94–103.ISBN 978-0-19-803765-1. ^AkiraSadakata(1997).BuddhistCosmology:PhilosophyandOrigins.KōseiPublishing佼成出版社,Tokyo.pp. 68–70.ISBN 978-4-333-01682-2. ^JamesHastings;JohnAlexanderSelbie;LouisHerbertGray(1922).Volume12:Suffering-Zwingli.EncyclopædiaofReligionandEthics.T.&T.Clark.pp. 616–618. ^JessicaFrazier&GavinFlood2011,pp. 84–86. ^KusumP.Merh(1996).Yama,theGloriousLordoftheOtherWorld.Penguin.pp. 213–215.ISBN 978-81-246-0066-5. ^AnitaRainaThapan(2006).ThePenguinSwamiChinmyanandaReader.PenguinBooks.pp. 84–90.ISBN 978-0-14-400062-3. ^JessicaFrazier;GavinFlood(2011).TheContinuumCompaniontoHinduStudies.BloomsburyAcademic.pp. 84–86.ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0. ^PatrulRinpoche;DalaiLama(1998).TheWordsofMyPerfectTeacher:ACompleteTranslationofaClassicIntroductiontoTibetanBuddhism.RowmanAltamira.pp. 95–96.ISBN 978-0-7619-9027-7. ^YuvrajKrishan(1997).TheDoctrineofKarma:ItsOriginandDevelopmentinBrāhmaṇical,Buddhist,andJainaTraditions.BharatiyaVidyaBhavan.pp. 17–27.ISBN 978-81-208-1233-8. ^PaulWilliams,AnthonyTribe&AlexanderWynne2012,pp. 30–42.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFPaul_WilliamsAnthony_TribeAlexander_Wynne2012(help) ^MichaelD.Coogan(2003).TheIllustratedGuidetoWorldReligions.OxfordUniversityPress.p. 192.ISBN 978-0-19-521997-5. ^DavidCarpenter;IanWhicher(2003).Yoga:TheIndianTradition.Routledge.p. 116.ISBN 978-1-135-79606-8. ^RitaLanger(2007).BuddhistRitualsofDeathandRebirth:ContemporarySriLankanPracticeandItsOrigins.Routledge.pp. 53–54.ISBN 978-1-134-15873-7. ^ChristmasHumphreys(2012).ExploringBuddhism.Routledge.pp. 42–43.ISBN 978-1-136-22877-3. ^BrianMorris(2006).ReligionandAnthropology:ACriticalIntroduction.CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 51.ISBN 978-0-521-85241-8.(...)anattaisthedoctrineofnon-self,andisanextremeempiricistdoctrinethatholdsthatthenotionofanunchangingpermanentselfisafictionandhasnoreality.AccordingtoBuddhistdoctrine,theindividualpersonconsistsoffiveskandhasorheaps—thebody,feelings,perceptions,impulsesandconsciousness.Thebeliefinaselforsoul,overthesefiveskandhas,isillusoryandthecauseofsuffering. ^RichardGombrich(2006).TheravadaBuddhism.Routledge.p. 47.ISBN 978-1-134-90352-8.(...)Buddha'steachingthatbeingshavenosoul,noabidingessence.This'no-souldoctrine'(anatta-vada)heexpoundedinhissecondsermon. ^Anatta,EncyclopediaBritannica(2013),Quote:"AnattainBuddhism,thedoctrinethatthereisinhumansnopermanent,underlyingsoul.Theconceptofanatta,oranatman,isadeparturefromtheHindubeliefinatman(“theself”)."; ^StevenCollins(1994),ReligionandPracticalReason(Editors:FrankReynolds,DavidTracy),StateUnivofNewYorkPress,ISBN 978-0791422175,p.64;"CentraltoBuddhistsoteriologyisthedoctrineofnot-self(Pali:anattā,Sanskrit:anātman,theopposeddoctrineofātmaniscentraltoBrahmanicalthought).Putverybriefly,thisisthe[Buddhist]doctrinethathumanbeingshavenosoul,noself,nounchangingessence." ^EdwardRoer(Translator),Shankara'sIntroduction,p.2,atGoogleBookstoBrihadAranyakaUpanishad,pp.2–4; ^KatieJavanaud(2013),IsTheBuddhist‘No-Self’DoctrineCompatibleWithPursuingNirvana?,PhilosophyNow; ^abLoy,David(1982)."EnlightenmentinBuddhismandAdvaitaVedanta:AreNirvanaandMokshatheSame?".InternationalPhilosophicalQuarterly.22(1):65–74.doi:10.5840/ipq19822217. ^KNJayatilleke(2010),EarlyBuddhistTheoryofKnowledge,ISBN 978-8120806191,pp.246–249,fromnote385onwards; ^JohnC.Plottetal(2000),GlobalHistoryofPhilosophy:TheAxialAge,Volume1,MotilalBanarsidass,ISBN 978-8120801585,p.63,Quote:"TheBuddhistschoolsrejectanyĀtmanconcept.Aswehavealreadyobserved,thisisthebasicandineradicabledistinctionbetweenHinduismandBuddhism". ^BruceM.Sullivan(1997).HistoricalDictionaryofHinduism.Scarecrow.pp. 235–236(See:Upanishads).ISBN 978-0-8108-3327-2. ^KlausK.Klostermaier(2007).ASurveyofHinduism:ThirdEdition.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.pp. 119–122,162–180,194–195.ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4. ^Kalupahana1992,pp. 38–39.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFKalupahana1992(help) ^GObeyesekere(1980).WendyDoniger(ed.).KarmaandRebirthinClassicalIndianTraditions.UniversityofCaliforniaPress.pp. 137–141.ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0. ^LibbyAhluwalia(2008).UnderstandingPhilosophyofReligion.Folens.pp. 243–249.ISBN 978-1-85008-274-3. ^HaroldCoward;JuliusLipner;KatherineK.Young(1989).HinduEthics.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.pp. 85–94.ISBN 978-0-88706-764-8. ^abNaomiAppleton(2014).NarratingKarmaandRebirth:BuddhistandJainMulti-LifeStories.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 76–89.ISBN 978-1-139-91640-0. ^KristiL.Wiley(2004).HistoricalDictionaryofJainism.Scarecrow.p. 91.ISBN 978-0-8108-5051-4. ^KristiL.Wiley(2004).HistoricalDictionaryofJainism.Scarecrow.pp. 10–12,111–112,119.ISBN 978-0-8108-5051-4. ^GananathObeyesekere(2006).KarmaandRebirth:ACrossCulturalStudy.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 107–108.ISBN 978-81-208-2609-0.;KristiL.Wiley(2004).HistoricalDictionaryofJainism.Scarecrow.pp. 118–119.ISBN 978-0-8108-5051-4. ^JohnE.Cort(2001).JainsintheWorld:ReligiousValuesandIdeologyinIndia.OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 118–123.ISBN 978-0-19-803037-9. ^Schibli,S.,Hermann,PherekydesofSyros,p.104,OxfordUniv.Press2001 ^"Thedatesofhislifecannotbefixedexactly,butassumingtheapproximatecorrectnessofthestatementofAristoxenus(ap.Porph.V.P.9)thatheleftSamostoescapethetyrannyofPolycratesattheageofforty,wemayputhisbirthroundabout570BCE,orafewyearsearlier.Thelengthofhislifewasvariouslyestimatedinantiquity,butitisagreedthathelivedtoafairlyripeoldage,andmostprobablyhediedataboutseventy-fiveoreighty."WilliamKeithChambersGuthrie,(1978),AhistoryofGreekphilosophy,Volume1:TheearlierPresocraticsandthePythagoreans,p.173.CambridgeUniversityPress ^SeeKamtekar2016foradiscussionofhowPlato'sviewofreincarnationchangesacrosstexts,especiallyconcerningtheexistenceofadistinctreward-or-punishmentphasebetweenlives. ^SeeCampbell2022formoreonwhyPlatobelievesinreincarnation. ^SeeTimaeus90-92. ^Linforth,IvanM.(1941)TheArtsofOrpheusArnoPress,NewYork,OCLC 514515 ^Long,HerbertS.(1948)AStudyofthedoctrineofmetempsychosisinGreece,fromPythagorastoPlato(Long's1942Ph.D.dissertation)Princeton,NewJersey,OCLC 1472399 ^Long,HerbertS.(1948)."Plato'sDoctrineofMetempsychosisandItsSource".TheClassicalWeekly.41(10):149–155.doi:10.2307/4342414.JSTOR 4342414.ProQuest 1296280468. ^LeonidZhmud(2012).PythagorasandtheEarlyPythagoreans.OUPOxford.pp. 232–233.ISBN 978-0199289318. ^Menander,TheInspiredWoman ^Lucian,Gallus,18etseq. ^Poesch,Jessie(1962)"EnniusandBasinioofParma"JournaloftheWarburgandCourtauldInstitutes25(1/2):116–118[117n15]. ^Lucretius,(i.124) ^Horace,Epistles,II.i.52 ^Virgil,TheAeneid,vv.724etseq. ^JuliusCaesar,"DeBelloGallico",VI ^T.RiceHolmes(1903).Caesar'sConquestofGaul:AnHistoricalNarrative. ^Kendrick2003,p. 106.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFKendrick2003(help) ^abKendrick2003,p. 108.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFKendrick2003(help) ^Kendrick2003,p. 105.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFKendrick2003(help) ^RobinMelrose(2014).TheDruidsandKingArthur:ANewViewofEarlyBritain.McFarland.ISBN 978-07-864600-5-2. ^Kendrick2003,p. 109.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFKendrick2003(help) ^EssentialJudaism:ACompleteGuidetoBeliefs,Customs&Rituals,ByGeorgeRobinson,SimonandSchuster2008,p.193 ^TheBookofBeliefsandOpinions,chap.VIII ^"MindintheBalance:MeditationinScience,Buddhism,andChristianity",p.104,byB.AlanWallace ^"BetweenWorlds:Dybbuks,Exorcists,andEarlyModernJudaism",p.190,byJ.H.Chajes ^JewishTalesofReincarnation,ByYonassonGershom,YonassonGershom,JasonAronson,Incorporated,31January2000 ^YonassonGershom(1999),JewishTalesofReincarnation.Northvale,NJ:JasonAronson.ISBN 0765760835 ^ThebookReincarnationinChristianity,bythetheosophistGeddesMacGregor(1978)assertedthatOrigenbelievedinreincarnation.MacGregorisconvincedthatOrigenbelievedinandtaughtaboutreincarnationbutthathistextswrittenaboutthesubjecthavebeendestroyed.Headmitsthatthereisnoextantproofforthatposition.TheallegationwasalsorepeatedbyShirleyMacLaineinherbookOutOnaLimb. Origendoesdiscusstheconceptoftransmigration(metensomatosis)fromGreekphilosophy,butitisrepeatedlystatedthatthisconceptisnotapartoftheChristianteachingorscriptureinhisCommentontheGospelofMatthew(whichsurvivesonlyinasixth-centuryLatintranslatio):"Inthisplace[whenJesussaidElijahwascomeandreferredtoJohntheBaptist]itdoesnotappeartomethatbyElijahthesoulisspokenof,lestIfallintothedoctrineoftransmigration,whichisforeigntotheChurchofGod,andnothandeddownbytheapostles,noranywheresetforthinthescriptures"(13:1:46–53,seeCommentaryonMatthew,BookXIII ^MuchofthisisdocumentedinR.E.Slater'sbookParadiseReconsidered. ^RichardFoltz,ReligionsoftheSilkRoad,NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2010 ^Zhuangzi(1889).ChuangTzŭ:Mystic,Moralist,andSocialReformer(translatedbyHerbertAllenGiles).BernardQuaritch.p. 304. ^"Newadvent.org".Newadvent.org.1February1911.Retrieved6December2011. ^StevenRunciman,TheMedievalManichee:AStudyoftheChristianDualistHeresy,1982,ISBN 0-521-28926-2,CambridgeUniversityPress,TheBogomils ^ForexampleDondaine,Antoine.O.P.Untraiteneo-manicheenduXIIIesiecle:LeLiberdeduobusprincipiis,suivid'unfragmentderituelCathare(Rome:InstitutumHistoricumFratrumPraedicatorum,1939) ^"Newadvent.org".Newadvent.org.1March1907.Retrieved6December2011. ^"thesoulsmustalwaysbethesame,forifnonebedestroyedtheywillnotdiminishinnumber."RepublicX,611.TheRepublicofPlatoByPlato,BenjaminJowettEdition:3PublishedbyClarendonpress,1888. ^InalettertohisfriendGeorgeWhatleywritten23May1785:Kennedy,JenniferT.(2001)."DeathEffects:RevisitingtheConceitofFranklin's"Memoir"".EarlyAmericanLiterature.36(2):201–234.doi:10.1353/eal.2001.0016.JSTOR 25057231.S2CID 161799223. ^MarsilioFicino,PlatonicTheology,17.3–4 ^"Again,Rosalindin"AsYouLikeIt"(ActIII.,Scene2),says:Iwasneversobe-rhimedthatIcanremembersincePythagoras'stime,whenIwasanIrishrat"—alludingtothedoctrineofthetransmigrationofsouls."WilliamH.GrattanFlood,quotedatLibraryireland.com ^Boulting,1914.pp.163–164 ^"SwedenborgandLifeRecap:DoWeReincarnate?3/6/2017".SwedenborgFoundation.Retrieved24October2019. ^abBerger,ArthurS.;Berger,Joyce(1991).TheEncyclopediaofParapsychologyandPsychicalResearch.ParagonHousePublishers.ISBN 1-55778-043-9. ^Schopenhauer,A:"ParergaundParalipomena"(EduardGrisebachedition),OnReligion,Section177 ^NietzscheandtheDoctrineofMetempsychosis,inJ.Urpeth&J.Lippitt,NietzscheandtheDivine,Manchester:Clinamen,2000 ^ab"Shirleymaclaine.com".Shirleymaclaine.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon6November2011.Retrieved6December2011. ^DavidHammerman,LisaLenard,TheCompleteIdiot'sGuidetoReincarnation,Penguin,p.34.ForrelevantworksbyJames,see;WilliamJames,HumanImmortality:TwoSupposedObjectionstotheDoctrine(theIngersollLecture,1897),TheWilltoBelieve,HumanImmortality(1956)DoverPublications,ISBN 0-486-20291-7,TheVarietiesofReligiousExperience:AStudyinHumanNature(1902),ISBN 0-14-039034-0,EssaysinRadicalEmpiricism(1912)DoverPublications2003,ISBN 0-486-43094-4 ^RichmalCrompton,MoreWilliam,GeorgeNewnes,London,1924,XIII.WilliamandtheAncientSouls;"Thememoryusuallycameinaflash.Forinstance,youmightrememberinaflashwhenyouwerelookingataboxofmatchesthatyouhadbeenGuyFawkes." ^Marquis,"ArchyandMehitabel"(1927) ^ThéodoreFlournoy,DesIndesàlaplanèteMarsArchived2009-12-01attheWaybackMachine,Étudesuruncasdesomnambulismeavecglossolalie,ÉditionsAlcanetEggimann,ParisetGenève,1900 ^"Astara".www.encyclopedia.com. ^DavidW.Moore,ThreeinFourAmericansBelieveinParanormal ^[1][deadlink] ^JaneHenry(2005).Parapsychology:researchonexceptionalexperiencesRoutledge,p.224. ^Walter,Tony;Waterhouse,Helen(1999)."AVeryPrivateBelief:ReincarnationinContemporaryEngland".SociologyofReligion.60(2):187–197.doi:10.2307/3711748.JSTOR 3711748. ^Waterhouse,H.(1999)."ReincarnationbeliefinBritain:Newageorientationormainstreamoption?".JournalofContemporaryReligion.14(1):97–109.doi:10.1080/13537909908580854. ^"BeingatOne:NealeDonaldWalschInterviewwithGilDekel(Part3of3,paragraphs18–19)". ^Baba,Meher(1967),Discourses,VolumeIII,SufismReoriented,1967,ISBN 1-880619-09-1,p.96. ^abcPeterHarvey(2012).AnIntroductiontoBuddhism:Teachings,HistoryandPractices.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 32–33,38–39,46–49.ISBN 978-0-521-85942-4. ^RonaldWesleyNeufeldt(1986).KarmaandRebirth:PostClassicalDevelopments.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.pp. 123–131.ISBN 978-0-87395-990-2. ^RayBillington(2002).UnderstandingEasternPhilosophy.Routledge.p. 60.ISBN 978-1-134-79348-8. ^RayBillington(2002).UnderstandingEasternPhilosophy.Routledge.pp. 43–44,58–60.ISBN 978-1-134-79349-5. ^abDamienKeown(2004).ADictionaryofBuddhism(Articlestitleducchedavāda,śāśvata-vāda,rebirth).OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 80,162,225,255,315.ISBN 978-0198605607. ^McClelland2010,p. 21.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFMcClelland2010(help) ^DavidJ.Kalupahana(1975).Causality:TheCentralPhilosophyofBuddhism.UniversityPressofHawaii.pp. 115–119.ISBN 978-0-8248-0298-1. ^PeterHarvey(2012).AnIntroductiontoBuddhism:Teachings,HistoryandPractices.CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 57–62.ISBN 978-0-521-85942-4. ^OliverLeaman(2002).EasternPhilosophy:KeyReadings.Routledge.pp. 23–27.ISBN 978-1-134-68919-4. ^MalcolmB.Hamilton(2012).TheSociologyofReligion:TheoreticalandComparativePerspectives.Routledge.pp. 73–80.ISBN 978-1-134-97626-3. ^Raju,P.T.(1985).StructuralDepthsofIndianThought.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.pp. 147–151.ISBN 978-0-88706-139-4. ^McClelland2010,p. 89harvnberror:notarget:CITEREFMcClelland2010(help);HughNicholson(2016).TheSpiritofContradictioninChristianityandBuddhism.OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 23–25.ISBN 978-0-19-045534-7. ^Rahula,Walpola(1990).WhattheBuddhaTaught.London:GordonFraser.p. 51. ^Trainor2004,p. 58,Quote:"BuddhismshareswithHinduismthedoctrineofSamsara,wherebyallbeingspassthroughanunceasingcycleofbirth,deathandrebirthuntiltheyfindameansofliberationfromthecycle.However,BuddhismdiffersfromHinduisminrejectingtheassertionthateveryhumanbeingpossessesachangelesssoulwhichconstituteshisorherultimateidentity,andwhichtransmigratesfromoneincarnationtothenext..sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFTrainor2004(help) ^RobertE.BuswellJr.;DonaldS.LopezJr.(2013).ThePrincetonDictionaryofBuddhism.PrincetonUniversityPress.pp. 708–709.ISBN 978-1-4008-4805-8. ^(M.1.256)"Post-ClassicalDevelopmentsintheConceptsofKarmaandRebirthinTheravadaBuddhism."byBruceMatthews.inKarmaandRebirth:Post-ClassicalDevelopmentsStateUnivofNewYorkPress:1986ISBN 0-87395-990-6p.125 ^Collins,Steven.Selflesspersons:imageryandthoughtinTheravādaBuddhismCambridgeUniversityPress,1990.ISBN 0-521-39726-Xp.215,GoogleBooks ^(D.3.105)"Post-ClassicalDevelopmentsintheConceptsofKarmaandRebirthinTheravadaBuddhism.byBruceMatthews.inKarmaandRebirth:Post-ClassicalDevelopmentsStateUnivofNewYorkPress:1986ISBN 0-87395-990-6p.125 ^DavidJ.Kalupahana(1975).Causality:TheCentralPhilosophyofBuddhism.UniversityPressofHawaii.p. 83.ISBN 978-0-8248-0298-1. ^WilliamH.Swatos;PeterKivisto(1998).EncyclopediaofReligionandSociety.RowmanAltamira.p. 66.ISBN 978-0-7619-8956-1. ^HisHolinesstheDalaiLama,HowtoPractice:TheWaytoaMeaningfulLife(NewYork:AtriaBooks,2002),p.46 ^BruceMatthewsinRonaldWesleyNeufeldt,editor,KarmaandRebirth:PostClassicalDevelopments.SUNYPress,1986,p.125.Google.com ^PeterHarvey,TheSelflessMind.CurzonPress1995,p.247. ^RobertE.BuswellJr.;DonaldS.LopezJr.(2013).ThePrincetonDictionaryofBuddhism.PrincetonUniversityPress.pp. 49–50,708–709.ISBN 978-1-4008-4805-8. ^TheConnectedDiscoursesoftheBuddha.ATranslationoftheSamyuttaNikaya,BhikkhuBodhi,Translator.WisdomPublications.Sutta44.9 ^Karma-gliṅ-pa;ChogyamTrungpa;FrancescaFremantle(2000).TheTibetanBookoftheDead:TheGreatLiberationThroughHearingintheBardo.ShambhalaPublications.pp. xi,xvii–xxiii.ISBN 978-1-57062-747-7. ^Karma-gliṅ-pa;ChogyamTrungpa;FrancescaFremantle(2000).TheTibetanBookoftheDead:TheGreatLiberationThroughHearingintheBardo.ShambhalaPublications.pp. 4–23.ISBN 978-1-57062-747-7. ^Trainor2004,pp. 210–211.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFTrainor2004(help) ^Trainor2004,pp. 62–63.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFTrainor2004(help) ^McClelland2010,p. 281.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFMcClelland2010(help) ^Warner,Brad(2005),HardcoreZen,WisdomPublications,p. 155,ISBN 9780861719891 ^TransformYourLife:ABlissfulJourney,p.52),TharpaPublications(2001,USed.2007)ISBN 978-0-9789067-4-0 ^"TextanalysisofMatthew14:2withparallelGreek".Biblehub.Archivedfromtheoriginalon24August2019.Retrieved24August2019. ^ANALYSIS(9December2009)."Pewforum.org".Pewforum.org.Retrieved6December2011. ^"Spiritual-wholeness.org".Spiritual-wholeness.org.Archivedfromtheoriginalon25April2001.Retrieved6December2011. ^RudolfFrieling,ChristianityandReincarnation,FlorisBooks2015 ^MarkAlbrecht,Reincarnation,aChristianAppraisal,InterVarsityPress,1982 ^LynnA.DeSilva,ReincarnationinBuddhistandChristianThought,ChristianLiteratureSocietyofCeylon,1968 ^Cranston,Sylvia(1990).ReincarnationinChristianity:ANewVisionoftheRoleofRebirthinChristianThought(QuestBooks)(9780835605014):GeddesMacGregor:Books.ISBN 0835605019. ^TheBigBookofReincarnation,byRoyStemman,p.14 ^abc"ChurchFathers:Letter124(Jerome)".www.newadvent.org. ^ab"CorpusCorporum".mlat.uzh.ch. ^abCross,F.L.,andElizabethA.Livingstone.TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch(SecondEdition).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1984.p.1009. ^AugustineofHippo(1913).ThecityofGod.Book12,chapter20.archive.org.Vol. I.TranslatedbyMarcusDods.Edinburgh.pp. 508–509.Archivedfromtheoriginalon25December2018.Retrieved25December2018. ^Seabrook,W.B.,AdventuresinArabia,HarrapandSons1928,(chaptersonDruzereligion) ^abDwairy,Marwan(March2006)."ThePsychosocialFunctionOfReincarnationAmongDruzeInIsrael".Culture,MedicineandPsychiatry.30(1):29–53.doi:10.1007/s11013-006-9007-1.PMID 16721673.S2CID 9132055. ^Lewis,James(2002).TheEncyclopediaofCults,Sects,andNewReligions.PrometheusBooks.ISBN 1615927387. ^abMarkJuergensmeyer&WadeClarkRoof2011,p. 272.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFMark_JuergensmeyerWade_Clark_Roof2011(help) ^abJeaneaneD.Fowler1997,p. 10.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFJeaneane_D._Fowler1997(help) ^ChristopherChapple(1986),Karmaandcreativity,StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,ISBN 0-88706-251-2,pp.60–64 ^JeaneaneD.Fowler1997,p. 11.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFJeaneane_D._Fowler1997(help) ^abJuliusLipner(2012).Hindus:TheirReligiousBeliefsandPractices.Routledge.pp. 263–265.ISBN 978-1-135-24061-5. ^Jacobsen,Knut(2009)."ThreeFunctionsofHellintheHinduTraditions".Numen.56(2–3):385–400.doi:10.1163/156852709X405071.JSTOR 27793797. ^JuliusLipner(2012).Hindus:TheirReligiousBeliefsandPractices.Routledge.pp. 251–252,283,366–369.ISBN 978-1-135-24061-5. ^RoyW.Perrett(1998).HinduEthics:APhilosophicalStudy.UniversityofHawaiiPress.pp. 53–54.ISBN 978-0-8248-2085-5. ^BruceM.Sullivan(2001).TheAtoZofHinduism.Rowman&Littlefield.p. 137.ISBN 978-0-8108-4070-6. ^JeaneaneD.Fowler1997,pp. 111–112.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFJeaneane_D._Fowler1997(help) ^YongChoonKim;DavidH.Freeman(1981).OrientalThought:AnIntroductiontothePhilosophicalandReligiousThoughtofAsia.Rowman&Littlefield.pp. 15–17.ISBN 978-0-8226-0365-8. ^HaroldCoward2008,p. 129.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFHarold_Coward2008(help) ^HaroldCoward2008,p. 129,alsoseepages130–155.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFHarold_Coward2008(help) ^Chapple2010,p. 98.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFChapple2010(help) ^Chapple2010,p. 107.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFChapple2010(help) ^Chapple2010,p. 582.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFChapple2010(help) ^JeaneaneD.Fowler(2002).PerspectivesofReality:AnIntroductiontothePhilosophyofHinduism.SussexAcademicPress.pp. 340–347,373–375.ISBN 978-1-898723-93-6. ^JeaneaneD.Fowler(2002).PerspectivesofReality:AnIntroductiontothePhilosophyofHinduism.SussexAcademicPress.pp. 238–240,243–245,249–250,261–263,279–284.ISBN 978-1-898723-93-6. ^abcJaneIdelmanSmith;YvonneYazbeckHaddad(2002).TheIslamicUnderstandingofDeathandResurrection.OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 23–24.ISBN 978-0-19-028880-8. ^abcdMcClelland2010,pp. 122–123.sfnerror:notarget:CITEREFMcClelland2010(help) ^JohnL.Esposito(2004).TheOxfordDictionaryofIslam.OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 137,249.ISBN 978-0-19-975726-8. ^NormanL.Geisler;AbdulSaleeb(2002).AnsweringIslam:TheCrescentinLightoftheCross.BakerAcademic.p. 109.ISBN 978-0-8010-6430-2. ^GnosticliberationfrontArchived17December2008attheWaybackMachineTheSufiMessageofHazratInayatKhan ^seehisToDieBeforeDeath:TheSufiWayofLife,pg.110 ^Wilson,PeterLamborn,Scandal:EssaysinIslamicHeresy,Brooklyn,NY:Autonomedia.(1988).ISBN 0-936756-13-6hardcover0-936756-12-2paperback ^Peters,FrancisE.;Esposito,JohnL.(2006).ThechildrenofAbraham:Judaism,Christianity,Islam.PrincetonUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-691-12769-9. ^Alawis,Countrystudies.us,U.S.LibraryofCongress. ^TaraSethia(2004).Ahimsā,Anekānta,andJainism.MotilalBanarsidass.pp. 30–31.ISBN 978-81-208-2036-4. ^Kuhn,Hermann(2001)pp.226–230 ^abKrishan,Yuvraj(1997):p.43. ^Kuhn,Hermann(2001)pp.70–71 ^abKuhn,Hermann(2001)pp.64–66 ^Kuhn,Hermann(2001)p.15 ^Rankin,Aidan(2006)p.67 ^abJaini,Padmanabh(1998)p.108 ^TheJainhierarchyoflifeclassifieslivingbeingsonthebasisofthesenses:five-sensedbeingslikehumansandanimalsareatthetop,andsinglesensedbeingslikemicrobesandplantsareatthebottom. ^Jaini,Padmanabh(1998)pp.108–109 ^Jaini,Padmanabh(2000)p.130 ^Krishan,Yuvraj(1997)p.44 ^abKuhn,Hermann(2001)p.28 ^Kuhn,Hermann(2001)p.69 ^Kuhn,Hermann(2001)pp.65–66,70–71 ^TikuneiZohar,Tikkun69,112aand114a.Literally,"ThereisanextensionofMosesineverygenerationandtoeachandeveryrighteousman." ^"ReincarnationandJewishTradition".May9,2009. ^Sha'arHa'Gilgulim,TheGateofReincarnations,ChaimVital ^"LimmudBayArea2016:JudaismandReincarnation".limmudbayarea2016.sched.com.Retrieved22February2017. ^AntoniaMillsandRichardSlobodin,ed.(1994).AmerindianRebirth:ReincarnationBeliefAmongNorthAmericanIndiansandInuit.UniversityofTorontoPress.ISBN 978-0802077035. ^Rink,Henry."TalesandTraditionsoftheEskimo".adaptedbyWeimer,Christopher,M.Retrieved1December2011. ^Jefferson,Warren(2008).ReincarnationbeliefsofNorthAmericanIndians :souljourneys,metamorphoses,andnear-deathexperiences.NativeVoices.ISBN 978-1-57067-212-5.OCLC 272306114. ^W.O.Cole;PiaraSinghSambhi(2016).SikhismandChristianity:AComparativeStudy.Springer.pp. 13–14.ISBN 978-1-349-23049-5. ^Arvind-PalSinghMandair(2013).Sikhism:AGuideforthePerplexed.BloomsburyAcademic.p. 176.ISBN 978-1-4411-5366-1. ^abcdArvind-PalSinghMandair(2013).Sikhism:AGuideforthePerplexed.A&CBlack.pp. 145–147.ISBN 978-1-4411-0231-7. ^JohnGordonMelton;MartinBaumann(2002).Religionsoftheworld:acomprehensiveencyclopediaofbeliefsandpractices.Vol. 2.ABC-CLIO.p. 632.ISBN 978-1-57607-223-3. ^EricJ.Lott(1988).Vision,Tradition,Interpretation:Theology,Religion,andtheStudyofReligion.WalterdeGruyter.pp. 49–53.ISBN 978-3-11-009761-0. ^Flood,Gavin(1996).AnintroductiontoHinduism.CambridgeUniversityPress.p. 137.ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0. ^H.S.Singha(2000).TheEncyclopediaofSikhism.HemkuntPress.pp. 68,80.ISBN 978-81-7010-301-1. ^DavidJ.Hess(2010).SpiritsandScientists:Ideology,SpiritismandBrazilianCulture.PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress.pp. 16–.ISBN 978-0-271-04080-6. ^Seee.g.ReincarnationandKarmabySteiner ^Steiner,KarmicRelationships,volumes1–6 ^Hammer,Olav(2003).ClaimingKnowledge:StrategiesofEpistemologyfromTheosophytotheNewAge.Brill.p. 495.ISBN 90-04-13638-X. ^Woods,Jutta(2013)."TheTheosophicalHeritageinModernAstrology".TheMountainAstrologer. ^StevenForrestandJeffreyWolfGreen."AboutEvolutionaryAstrology".Retrieved22November2014. ^"ScientologyChurch&Religion–WhatisScientology?".Scientology.Archivedfromtheoriginalon13June2006. ^EncyclopediaofWiccaandWitchcraft,RavenGrimassi ^Grant,John(2015).SpookyScience:DebunkingthePseudoscienceoftheAfterlife.SterlingPublishingCompany,Incorporated.ISBN 978-1-4549-1654-3. ^Edwards,Paul(1996).Reincarnation:acriticalexamination.Amherst,N.Y.:PrometheusBooks.ISBN 978-1-57392-005-6.OCLC 33439860. ^TheBoundariesofKnowledgeinBuddhism,Christianity,andScience,byPaulDavidNumrich,p.13,Vandenhoeck&Ruprecht,ISBN 978-3525569870 ^Aftertheafterlifedebate,referencingSagan'sbookTheDemonHauntedWorld ^Cadoret,RemiJ.(April2005)."EuropeanCasesoftheReincarnationType".AmericanJournalofPsychiatry.162(4):823–824.doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.4.823. ^abShroder,Tom(11February2007)."IanStevenson;SoughtToDocumentMemoriesOfPastLivesinChildren".TheWashingtonPost. ^"Mills".SignsofReincarnation. ^Moraes,LucamJ.;Barbosa,GabrielleS.;Castro,JoãoPedroG.B.;Tucker,JimB.;Moreira-Almeida,Alexander(May2022)."Academicstudiesonclaimedpast-lifememories:Ascopingreview".Explore.18(3):371–378.doi:10.1016/j.explore.2021.05.006.PMID 34147343.S2CID 235491940. ^Tucker,JimB.(2018)."ReportsofPast-lifeMemories".InPresti,DavidE.(ed.).MindBeyondBrain:Buddhism,Science,andtheParanormal.ColumbiaUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-231-54839-7. ^Sagan,Carl(1996).DemonHauntedWorld.RandomHouse.pp. 300-302.ISBN 978-0-394-53512-8. ^Harris,Sam(17September2005).TheEndofFaith(Reprint ed.).W.W.Norton.p. 41endnote18onpage242.ISBN 0393327655. ^Kelly,EmilyWilliams(2012).Science,theSelf,andSurvivalafterDeath:SelectedWritingsofIanStevenson.Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers.p. 386.ISBN 978-1-4422-2115-4. ^Rockley,Richard.(2002)."BookReview:ChildrenwhoRememberPreviousLives".SkepticReport.Retrieved11October2014. ^Edwards,Paul.(1996,reprintedin2001).Reincarnation:ACriticalExamination.PrometheusBooks.ISBN 1-57392-921-2 ^"TheCaseAgainstImmortality".Infidels.org.31March1997.Retrieved11April2014. ^Wilson,Ian.(1981).MindOutofTime:ReincarnationInvestigated.Gollancz.ISBN 0-575-02968-4 ^Baker,RobertA.(1996).HiddenMemories:VoicesandVisionsfromWithin.PrometheusBooks.ISBN 0-87975-576-8 ^Cogan,Robert.(1998).CriticalThinking:StepbyStep.UniversityPressofAmerica.pp.202–203.ISBN 0-7618-1067-6"Edwardscatalogscommonsenseobjectionswhichhavebeenmadeagainstreincarnation.1)Howdoesasoulexistbetweenbodies?2)Tertullian'sobjection:Ifthereisreincarnation,whyarenotbabiesbornwiththementalabilitiesofadults?3)Reincarnationclaimsaninfiniteseriesofpriorincarnations.Evolutionteachesthattherewasatimewhenhumansdidnotyetexist.Soreincarnationisinconsistentwithmodernscience.4)Ifthereisreincarnation,thenwhatishappeningwhenthepopulationincreases?5)Ifthereisreincarnation,thenwhydosofew,ifanypeople,rememberpastlives?...Toanswertheseobjectionsbelieversinreincarnationmustacceptadditionalassumptions...Acceptanceofthesesillyassumptions,Edwardssays,amountstoacrucifixionofone'sintellect." Edwards,Paul.(1996,reprintedin2001).Reincarnation:ACriticalExamination.PrometheusBooks.ISBN 1-57392-921-2 ^Thomason,SarahG."Xenoglossy".InGordonStein.(1996).TheEncyclopediaoftheParanormal.PrometheusBooks.ISBN 1-57392-021-5 ^BreakfastwithBrianWeiss,PittsburghPost-Gazette,5August2002,Accessed25April2009. ^Weinstein-Moser,Edie."InterviewwithBrianWeiss".Wisdommagazine.Wisdom-Magazine.com.2008.Retrieved18June2015. ^abSpanosNP(1996).MultipleIdentities&FalseMemories:ASociocognitivePerspective.AmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA).pp. 135–40.ISBN 978-1-55798-340-4. ^abCarrollRT(2003).TheSkeptic'sDictionary:acollectionofstrangebeliefs,amusingdeceptions,anddangerousdelusions.NewYork:Wiley.pp. 276–277.ISBN 978-0-471-27242-7. ^SumnerD(2003).JustSmokeandMirrors:Religion,FearandSuperstitioninOurModernWorld.SanJose,[Calif.]:WritersClubPress.p. 50.ISBN 978-0-595-26523-7. ^LinseP,ShermerM(2002).TheSkepticencyclopediaofpseudoscience.SantaBarbara,Calif:ABC-CLIO.pp. 206–207.ISBN 978-1-57607-653-8. ^abCordónLA(2005).Popularpsychology:anencyclopedia.Westport,Conn:GreenwoodPress.pp. 183–185.ISBN 978-0-313-32457-4. ^abcAndradeG(December2017)."Ispastliferegressiontherapyethical?".JournalofMedicalEthicsandHistoryofMedicine.10:11.PMC 5797677.PMID 29416831. 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