Depth perception - Wikipedia

Depth perception is the visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions (3D) and the distance of an object. Depth sensation is the corresponding ... Depthperception FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Visualabilitytoperceivetheworldin3D Forobjectivecomparisonsofsize,seeOrdersofmagnitude(length). Thisarticleneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.Findsources: "Depthperception" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(January2021)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Perspective,relativesize,occultationandtexturegradientsallcontributetothethree-dimensionalappearanceofthisphoto. Depthperceptionisthevisualabilitytoperceivetheworldinthreedimensions(3D)andthedistanceofanobject.Depthsensationisthecorrespondingtermfornon-humananimals,sincealthoughitisknownthattheycansensethedistanceofanobject(becauseoftheabilitytomoveaccurately,ortorespondconsistently,accordingtothatdistance),itisnotknownwhethertheyperceiveitinthesamesubjectivewaythathumansdo.[1] Depthperceptionarisesfromavarietyofdepthcues.Thesearetypicallyclassifiedintobinocularcuesthatarebasedonthereceiptofsensoryinformationinthreedimensionsfrombotheyesandmonocularcuesthatcanberepresentedinjusttwodimensionsandobservedwithjustoneeye.[2][3]Binocularcuesincluderetinaldisparity,whichexploitsparallaxandvergence.Stereopsisismadepossiblewithbinocularvision.Monocularcuesincluderelativesize(distantobjectssubtendsmallervisualanglesthannearobjects),texturegradient,occlusion,linearperspective,contrastdifferences,andmotionparallax.[4] Contents 1Monocularcues 2Binocularcues 3Theoriesofevolution 3.1ThelawofNewton–Müller–Gudden 3.2Theeye-forelimbEFhypothesis 4Inart 5Inroboticsandcomputervision 6Seealso 7References 7.1Notes 8Bibliography 9Externallinks Monocularcues[edit] Motionparallax Monocularcuesprovidedepthinformationwhenviewingascenewithoneeye. Motionparallax Mainarticle:Parallax Whenanobservermoves,theapparentrelativemotionofseveralstationaryobjectsagainstabackgroundgiveshintsabouttheirrelativedistance.Ifinformationaboutthedirectionandvelocityofmovementisknown,motionparallaxcanprovideabsolutedepthinformation.[5]Thiseffectcanbeseenclearlywhendrivinginacar.Nearbythingspassquickly,whilefaroffobjectsappearstationary.Someanimalsthatlackbinocularvisionduetotheireyeshavinglittlecommonfield-of-viewemploymotionparallaxmoreexplicitlythanhumansfordepthcueing(forexample,sometypesofbirds,whichbobtheirheadstoachievemotionparallax,andsquirrels,whichmoveinlinesorthogonaltoanobjectofinteresttodothesame[6]).[note1] Depthfrommotion Whenanobjectmovestowardtheobserver,theretinalprojectionofanobjectexpandsoveraperiodoftime,whichleadstotheperceptionofmovementinalinetowardtheobserver.Anothernameforthisphenomenonisdepthfromopticalexpansion.[7]Thedynamicstimuluschangeenablestheobservernotonlytoseetheobjectasmoving,buttoperceivethedistanceofthemovingobject.Thus,inthiscontext,thechangingsizeservesasadistancecue.[8]Arelatedphenomenonisthevisualsystem'scapacitytocalculatetime-to-contact(TTC)ofanapproachingobjectfromtherateofopticalexpansion –ausefulabilityincontextsrangingfromdrivingacartoplayingaballgame.However,calculationofTTCis,strictlyspeaking,perceptionofvelocityratherthandepth. Kineticdeptheffect Mainarticle:Kineticdeptheffect Ifastationaryrigidfigure(forexample,awirecube)isplacedinfrontofapointsourceoflightsothatitsshadowfallsonatranslucentscreen,anobserverontheothersideofthescreenwillseeatwo-dimensionalpatternoflines.Butifthecuberotates,thevisualsystemwillextractthenecessaryinformationforperceptionofthethirddimensionfromthemovementsofthelines,andacubeisseen.Thisisanexampleofthekineticdeptheffect.[9]Theeffectalsooccurswhentherotatingobjectissolid(ratherthananoutlinefigure),providedthattheprojectedshadowconsistsoflineswhichhavedefinitecornersorendpoints,andthattheselineschangeinbothlengthandorientationduringtherotation.[10] Perspective Mainarticle:Perspective(visual) Thepropertyofparallellinesconverginginthedistance,atinfinity,allowsustoreconstructtherelativedistanceoftwopartsofanobject,oroflandscapefeatures.Anexamplewouldbestandingonastraightroad,lookingdowntheroad,andnoticingtheroadnarrowsasitgoesoffinthedistance.Visualperceptionofperspectiveinrealspace,forinstanceinrooms,insettlementsandinnature,isaresultofseveralopticalimpressionsandtheinterpretationbythevisualsystem.Theangleofvisionisimportantfortheapparentsize.Anearbyobjectisimagedonalargerareaontheretina,thesameobjectoranobjectofthesamesizefurtherawayonasmallerarea.[11]Theperceptionofperspectiveispossiblewhenlookingwithoneeyeonly,butstereoscopicvisionenhancestheimpressionofthespatial.Regardlessofwhetherthelightraysenteringtheeyecomefromathree-dimensionalspaceorfromatwo-dimensionalimage,theyhittheinsideoftheeyeontheretinaasasurface.Whatapersonsees,isbasedonthereconstructionbytheirvisualsystem,inwhichoneandthesameimageontheretinacanbeinterpretedbothtwo-dimensionallyandthree-dimensionally.Ifathree-dimensionalinterpretationhasbeenrecognised,itreceivespreferenceanddeterminestheperception.[12] Context-dependentinterpretationofthesize. Shotsatdifferentdistances Thehorizonlineisattheheightofthearmrests. Viewfromawindowonthe2ndfloorofahouse. Mountainpeaknearthesnowlineandseveralmountainpeaksabovethesnowline. Earthcurvature Inspatialvision,thehorizontallineofsightcanplayarole.Inthepicturetakenfromthewindowofahouse,thehorizontallineofsightisatthelevelofthesecondfloor(yellowline).Belowthisline,thefurtherawayobjectsare,thehigherupinthevisualfieldtheyappear.Abovethehorizontallineofsight,objectsthatarefurtherawayappearlowerthanthosethatarecloser.Torepresentspatialimpressionsingraphicalperspective,onecanuseavanishingpoint.[13]Whenlookingatlonggeographicaldistances,perspectiveeffectsalsopartiallyresultbytheangleofvision,butnotonlybythis.Inpicture5oftheseries,inthebackgroundisMontBlanc,thehighestmountainintheAlps.Itappearslowerthanthemountaininfrontinthecenterofthepicture.MeasurementsandcalculationscanbeusedtodeterminetheproportionofthecurvatureofEarthinthesubjectivelyperceivedproportions. Relativesize Iftwoobjectsareknowntobethesamesize(forexample,twotrees)buttheirabsolutesizeisunknown,relativesizecuescanprovideinformationabouttherelativedepthofthetwoobjects.Ifonesubtendsalargervisualangleontheretinathantheother,theobjectwhichsubtendsthelargervisualangleappearscloser. Familiarsize Sincethevisualangleofanobjectprojectedontotheretinadecreaseswithdistance,thisinformationcanbecombinedwithpreviousknowledgeoftheobject'ssizetodeterminetheabsolutedepthoftheobject.Forexample,peoplearegenerallyfamiliarwiththesizeofanaverageautomobile.Thispriorknowledgecanbecombinedwithinformationabouttheangleitsubtendsontheretinatodeterminetheabsolutedepthofanautomobileinascene. Absolutesize Eveniftheactualsizeoftheobjectisunknownandthereisonlyoneobjectvisible,asmallerobjectseemsfurtherawaythanalargeobjectthatispresentedatthesamelocation.[14] Aerialperspective Mainarticle:Aerialperspective Duetolightscatteringbytheatmosphere,objectsthatareagreatdistanceawayhavelowerluminancecontrastandlowercolorsaturation.Duetothis,imagesseemhazythefarthertheyareawayfromaperson'spointofview.Incomputergraphics,thisisoftencalled"distancefog".Theforegroundhashighcontrast;thebackgroundhaslowcontrast.Objectsdifferingonlyintheircontrastwithabackgroundappeartobeatdifferentdepths.[15]Thecolorofdistantobjectsarealsoshiftedtowardtheblueendofthespectrum(forexample,distantmountains).Somepainters,notablyCézanne,employ"warm"pigments(red,yellowandorange)tobringfeaturesforwardtowardstheviewer,and"cool"ones(blue,violet,andblue-green)toindicatethepartofaformthatcurvesawayfromthepictureplane. Accommodation Mainarticle:Accommodation(eye) Thisisanoculomotorcuefordepthperception.Whenhumanstrytofocusondistantobjects,theciliarymusclesstretchtheeyelens,makingitthinner,andhencechangingthefocallength.Thekinestheticsensationsofthecontractingandrelaxingciliarymuscles(intraocularmuscles)issenttothevisualcortexwhereitisusedforinterpretingdistanceanddepth.Accommodationisonlyeffectivefordistancesgreaterthan2meters. Occultation Mainarticle:Occultation Occultation(alsoreferredtoasinterposition)happenswhennearsurfacesoverlapfarsurfaces.[16]Ifoneobjectpartiallyblockstheviewofanotherobject,humansperceiveitascloser.However,thisinformationonlyallowstheobservertomakea"ranking"ofrelativenearness.Thepresenceofmonocularambientocclusionsconsistoftheobject'stextureandgeometry.Thesephenomenaareabletoreducethedepthperceptionlatencybothinnaturalandartificialstimuli.[17][18] Curvilinearperspective Mainarticle:Curvilinearperspective Attheouterextremesofthevisualfield,parallellinesbecomecurved,asinaphototakenthroughafisheyelens.Thiseffect,althoughitisusuallyeliminatedfrombothartandphotosbythecroppingorframingofapicture,greatlyenhancestheviewer'ssenseofbeingpositionedwithinareal,three-dimensionalspace.(Classicalperspectivehasnouseforthisso-called"distortion",althoughinfactthe"distortions"strictlyobeyopticallawsandprovideperfectlyvalidvisualinformation,justasclassicalperspectivedoesforthepartofthefieldofvisionthatfallswithinitsframe.) Texturegradient Mainarticle:Texturegradient Finedetailsonnearbyobjectscanbeseenclearly,whereassuchdetailsarenotvisibleonfarawayobjects.Texturegradientsaregrainsofanitem.Forexample,onalonggravelroad,thegravelneartheobservercanbeclearlyseenofshape,sizeandcolour.Inthedistance,theroad'stexturecannotbeclearlydifferentiated. Lightingandshading Mainarticles:LightingandShading Thewaythatlightfallsonanobjectandreflectsoffitssurfaces,andtheshadowsthatarecastbyobjectsprovideaneffectivecueforthebraintodeterminetheshapeofobjectsandtheirpositioninspace.[19] Defocusblur Mainarticle:Depthoffield Selectiveimageblurringisverycommonlyusedinphotographicandvideoforestablishingtheimpressionofdepth.Thiscanactasamonocularcueevenwhenallothercuesareremoved.Itmaycontributetothedepthperceptioninnaturalretinalimages,becausethedepthoffocusofthehumaneyeislimited.Inaddition,thereareseveraldepthestimationalgorithmsbasedondefocusandblurring.[20]Somejumpingspidersareknowntouseimagedefocustojudgedepth.[21] Elevation Whenanobjectisvisiblerelativetothehorizon,humanstendtoperceiveobjectswhichareclosertothehorizonasbeingfartherawayfromthem,andobjectswhicharefartherfromthehorizonasbeingclosertothem.[22]Inaddition,ifanobjectmovesfromapositionclosethehorizontoapositionhigherorlowerthanthehorizon,itwillappeartomoveclosertotheviewer. Binocularcues[edit] Binocularcuesprovidedepthinformationwhenviewingascenewithbotheyes. Stereopsis,orretinal(binocular)disparity,orbinocularparallax Mainarticle:Stereopsis Animalsthathavetheireyesplacedfrontallycanalsouseinformationderivedfromthedifferentprojectionofobjectsontoeachretinatojudgedepth.Byusingtwoimagesofthesamesceneobtainedfromslightlydifferentangles,itispossibletotriangulatethedistancetoanobjectwithahighdegreeofaccuracy.Eacheyeviewsaslightlydifferentangleofanobjectseenbytheleftandrighteyes.Thishappensbecauseofthehorizontalseparationparallaxoftheeyes.Ifanobjectisfaraway,thedisparityofthatimagefallingonbothretinaswillbesmall.Iftheobjectiscloseornear,thedisparitywillbelarge.ItisstereopsisthattrickspeopleintothinkingtheyperceivedepthwhenviewingMagicEyes,Autostereograms,3-Dmovies,andstereoscopicphotos. Convergence Mainarticle:Convergence(eye) Thisisabinocularoculomotorcuefordistanceanddepthperception.Becauseofstereopsis,thetwoeyeballsfocusonthesameobject;indoingsotheyconverge.Theconvergencewillstretchtheextraocularmuscles –thereceptorsforthisaremusclespindles.Ashappenswiththemonocularaccommodationcue,kinestheticsensationsfromtheseextraocularmusclesalsohelpindistanceanddepthperception.Theangleofconvergenceissmallerwhentheeyeisfixatingonobjectswhicharefaraway.Convergenceiseffectivefordistanceslessthan10meters.[23] Shadowstereopsis AntonioMedinaPuertademonstratedthatretinalimageswithnoparallaxdisparitybutwithdifferentshadowsarefusedstereoscopically,impartingdepthperceptiontotheimagedscene.Henamedthephenomenon"shadowstereopsis".Shadowsarethereforeanimportant,stereoscopiccuefordepthperception.[24] Ofthesevariouscues,onlyconvergence,accommodationandfamiliarsizeprovideabsolutedistanceinformation.Allothercuesarerelative(asin,theycanonlybeusedtotellwhichobjectsarecloserrelativetoothers).Stereopsisismerelyrelativebecauseagreaterorlesserdisparityfornearbyobjectscouldeithermeanthatthoseobjectsdiffermoreorlesssubstantiallyinrelativedepthorthatthefoveatedobjectisnearerorfurtheraway(thefurtherawayasceneis,thesmalleristheretinaldisparityindicatingthesamedepthdifference). Theoriesofevolution[edit] ThelawofNewton–Müller–Gudden[edit] IsaacNewtonproposedthattheopticnerveofhumansandotherprimateshasaspecificarchitectureonitswayfromtheeyetothebrain.Nearlyhalfofthefibresfromthehumanretinaprojecttothebrainhemisphereonthesamesideastheeyefromwhichtheyoriginate.Thatarchitectureislabelledhemi-decussationoripsilateral(samesided)visualprojections(IVP).Inmostotheranimalsthesenervefibrescrosstotheoppositesideofthebrain. BernhardvonGuddenshowedthattheOCcontainsbothcrossedanduncrossedretinalfibers,andRamonyCajal[25]observedthatthegradeofhemidecussationdiffersbetweenspecies.[26][25]WallsformalizedacommonlyacceptednotionintothelawofNewton–Müller–Gudden(NGM)saying:thatthedegreeofopticfibredecussationintheopticchiasmiscontrariwiserelatedtothedegreeoffrontalorientationoftheopticalaxesoftheeyes.[27][page needed]Inotherwords,thatthenumberoffibersthatdonotcrossthemidlineisproportionaltothesizeofthebinocularvisualfield.However,anissueoftheNewton–Müller–GuddenlawistheconsiderableinterspecificvariationinIVPseeninnon-mammalianspecies.Thatvariationisunrelatedtomodeoflife,taxonomicsituation,andtheoverlapofvisualfields.[28] Thus,thegeneralhypothesiswasforlongthatthearrangementofnervefibresintheopticchiasminprimatesandhumanshasdevelopedprimarilytocreateaccuratedepthperception,stereopsis,orexplicitlythattheeyesobserveanobjectfromsomewhatdissimilaranglesandthatthisdifferenceinangleassiststhebraintoevaluatethedistance. Theeye-forelimbEFhypothesis[edit] TheEFhypothesissuggeststhattheneedofaccurateeye–handcontrolwaskeyintheevolutionofstereopsis.AccordingtotheEFhypothesis,stereopsisisevolutionaryspinofffromamorevitalprocess:thattheconstructionoftheopticchiasmandthepositionofeyes(thedegreeoflateralorfrontaldirection)isshapedbyevolutiontohelptheanimaltocoordinatethelimbs(hands,claws,wingsorfins).[29] TheEFhypothesispostulatesthatithasselectivevaluetohaveshortneuralpathwaysbetweenareasofthebrainthatreceivevisualinformationaboutthehandandthemotornucleithatcontrolthecoordinationofthehand.TheessenceoftheEFhypothesisisthatevolutionarytransformationinOCwillaffectthelengthandtherebyspeedoftheseneuralpathways.[30] HavingtheprimatetypeofOCmeansthatmotorneuronscontrolling/executingletussayrighthandmovement,neuronsreceivingsensorye.g.tactileinformationabouttherighthand,andneuronsobtainingvisualinformationabouttherighthand,allwillbesituatedinthesame(left)brainhemisphere.Thereverseistrueforthelefthand,theprocessingofvisual,tactileinformation,andmotorcommand –allofthattakesplaceintherighthemisphere.Catsandarboreal(tree-climbing)marsupialshaveanalogousarrangements(between30and45%ofIVPandforwarddirectedeyes).Theresultwillbethatvisualinfooftheirforelimbsreachestheproper(executing)hemisphere. Theevolutionhasresultedinsmall,andgradualfluctuationstothedirectionofthenervepathwaysintheOC.Thistransformationcangoineitherdirection.[29][31] Snakes,cyclostomesandotheranimalsthatlackextremitieshaverelativelymanyIVP.Notablytheseanimalshavenolimbs(hands,paws,finsorwings)todirect.Besides,leftandrightbodypartsofsnakelikeanimalscannotmoveindependentlyofeachother.Forexample,ifasnakecoilsclockwise,itslefteyeonlyseestheleftbody-partandinanti-clock-wisepositionthesameeyewillseejusttherightbody-part.Forthatreason,itisfunctionalforsnakestohavesomeIVPintheOC(Naked).Cyclostomedescendants(inotherwordsmostvertebrates)thatduetoevolutionceasedtocurland,insteaddevelopedforelimbswouldbefavoredbyachievingcompletelycrossedpathwaysaslongasforelimbswereprimarilyoccupiedinlateraldirection.Reptilessuchassnakesthatlosttheirlimbs,wouldgainbyrecollectaclusterofuncrossedfibresintheirevolution.Thatseemstohavehappened,providingfurthersupportfortheEFhypothesis.[29][31] Mice'pawsareusuallybusyonlyinthelateralvisualfields.So,itisinaccordancewiththeEFhypothesisthatmicehavelaterallysituatedeyesandveryfewcrossingsintheOC.ThelistfromtheanimalkingdomsupportingtheEFhypothesisislong(BBE).TheEFhypothesisappliestoessentiallyallvertebrateswhiletheNGMlawandstereopsishypothesislargelyappliesjustinmammals.Evensomemammalsdisplayimportantexceptions,e.g.dolphinshaveonlyuncrossedpathwaysalthoughtheyarepredators.[31] Itisacommonsuggestionthatpredatoryanimalsgenerallyhavefrontally-placedeyessincethatpermitthemtoevaluatethedistancetoprey,whereaspreyed-uponanimalshaveeyesinalateralposition,sincethatpermitthemtoscananddetecttheenemyintime.However,manypredatoryanimalsmayalsobecomeprey,andseveralpredators,forinstancethecrocodile,havelaterallysituatedeyesandnoIVPatall.ThatOCarchitecturewillprovideshortnerveconnectionsandoptimaleyecontrolofthecrocodile'sfrontfoot.[31] Birds,usuallyhavelaterallysituatedeyes,inspiteofthattheymanagetoflythroughe.g.adensewood. Inconclusion,theEFhypothesisdoesnotrejectasignificantroleofstereopsis,butproposesthatprimates'superbdepthperception(stereopsis)evolvedtobeinserviceofthehand;thattheparticulararchitectureoftheprimatevisualsystemlargelyevolvedtoestablishrapidneuralpathwaysbetweenneuronsinvolvedinhandcoordination,assistingthehandingrippingthecorrectbranch[30] Thissectiondoesnotciteanysources.Pleasehelpimprovethissectionbyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(April2011)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Mostopen-plainsherbivores,especiallyhoofedgrazers,lackbinocularvisionbecausetheyhavetheireyesonthesidesofthehead,providingapanoramic,almost360°,viewofthehorizon –enablingthemtonoticetheapproachofpredatorsfromalmostanydirection.However,mostpredatorshavebotheyeslookingforwards,allowingbinoculardepthperceptionandhelpingthemtojudgedistanceswhentheypounceorswoopdownontotheirprey.Animalsthatspendalotoftimeintreestakeadvantageofbinocularvisioninordertoaccuratelyjudgedistanceswhenrapidlymovingfrombranchtobranch. MattCartmill,aphysicalanthropologist&anatomistatBostonUniversity,hascriticizedthistheory,citingotherarborealspecieswhichlackbinocularvision,suchassquirrelsandcertainbirds.Instead,heproposesa"VisualPredationHypothesis,"whicharguesthatancestralprimateswereinsectivorouspredatorsresemblingtarsiers,subjecttothesameselectionpressureforfrontalvisionasotherpredatoryspecies.Healsousesthishypothesistoaccountforthespecializationofprimatehands,whichhesuggestsbecameadaptedforgraspingprey,somewhatlikethewayraptorsemploytheirtalons. Inart[edit] Thissectiondoesnotciteanysources.Pleasehelpimprovethissectionbyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(July2012)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Photographscapturingperspectivearetwo-dimensionalimagesthatoftenillustratetheillusionofdepth.Photographyutilizessize,environmentalcontext,lighting,texturalgradience,andothereffectstocapturetheillusionofdepth.[32]StereoscopesandViewmasters,aswellas3Dfilms,employbinocularvisionbyforcingtheviewertoseetwoimagescreatedfromslightlydifferentpositions(pointsofview).CharlesWheatstonewasthefirsttodiscussdepthperceptionbeingacueofbinoculardisparity.Heinventedthestereoscope,whichisaninstrumentwithtwoeyepiecesthatdisplaystwophotographsofthesamelocation/scenetakenatrelativelydifferentangles.Whenobserved,separatelybyeacheye,thepairsofimagesinducedaclearsenseofdepth.[33]Bycontrast,atelephotolens—usedintelevisedsports,forexample,tozeroinonmembersofastadiumaudience—hastheoppositeeffect.Theviewerseesthesizeanddetailofthesceneasifitwerecloseenoughtotouch,butthecamera'sperspectiveisstillderivedfromitsactualpositionahundredmetersaway,sobackgroundfacesandobjectsappearaboutthesamesizeasthoseintheforeground. Trainedartistsarekeenlyawareofthevariousmethodsforindicatingspatialdepth(colorshading,distancefog,perspectiveandrelativesize),andtakeadvantageofthemtomaketheirworksappear"real".TheviewerfeelsitwouldbepossibletoreachinandgrabthenoseofaRembrandtportraitoranappleinaCézannestilllife—orstepinsidealandscapeandwalkaroundamongitstreesandrocks. Cubismwasbasedontheideaofincorporatingmultiplepointsofviewinapaintedimage,asiftosimulatethevisualexperienceofbeingphysicallyinthepresenceofthesubject,andseeingitfromdifferentangles.TheradicalexperimentsofGeorgesBraque,PabloPicasso,JeanMetzinger'sNuàlacheminée,[34]AlbertGleizes'sLaFemmeauxPhlox,[35][36]orRobertDelaunay'sviewsoftheEiffelTower,[37][38]employtheexplosiveangularityofCubismtoexaggeratethetraditionalillusionofthree-dimensionalspace.ThesubtleuseofmultiplepointsofviewcanbefoundinthepioneeringlateworkofCézanne,whichbothanticipatedandinspiredthefirstactualCubists.Cézanne'slandscapesandstilllivespowerfullysuggesttheartist'sownhighlydevelopeddepthperception.Atthesametime,liketheotherPost-Impressionists,CézannehadlearnedfromJapaneseartthesignificanceofrespectingtheflat(two-dimensional)rectangleofthepictureitself;HokusaiandHiroshigeignoredorevenreversedlinearperspectiveandtherebyremindtheviewerthatapicturecanonlybe"true"whenitacknowledgesthetruthofitsownflatsurface.Bycontrast,European"academic"paintingwasdevotedtoasortofBigLiethatthesurfaceofthecanvasisonlyanenchanteddoorwaytoa"real"sceneunfoldingbeyond,andthattheartist'smaintaskistodistracttheviewerfromanydisenchantingawarenessofthepresenceofthepaintedcanvas.Cubism,andindeedmostofmodernartisanattempttoconfront,ifnotresolve,theparadoxofsuggestingspatialdepthonaflatsurface,andexplorethatinherentcontradictionthroughinnovativewaysofseeing,aswellasnewmethodsofdrawingandpainting. Inroboticsandcomputervision[edit] Inroboticsandcomputervision,depthperceptionisoftenachievedusingsensorssuchasRGBDcameras.[39] Seealso[edit] Arborealtheory Cyclopeanstimuli Opticalillusion Orthoptics Peripheralvision Senses Visiontherapy Visualcliff References[edit] ^Howard,Ian(2012).PerceivinginDepth.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-199-76414-3. ^Sternberg,R.K.(2012). ^GoldsteinE.B.(2014,2017)Sensationandperception(10thed.).PacificGrove,Calif.:Wadsworth. ^BurtonHE(1945)."TheopticsofEuclid".JournaloftheOpticalSocietyofAmerica.35(5):357–372.doi:10.1364/JOSA.35.000357. ^FerrisSH(1972)."Motionparallaxandabsolutedistance"(PDF).JournalofExperimentalPsychology.95(2):258–263.doi:10.1037/h0033605.PMID 5071906. ^KralK.(2003)."Behavioural-analyticalstudiesoftheroleofheadmovementsindepthperceptionininsects,birdsandmammals".BehaviouralProcesses64:1–12. ^Swanston,M.C.;Gogel,W.C.(1986)."Perceivedsizeandmotionindepthfromopticalexpansion".Perception&Psychophysics.39(5):309–326.doi:10.3758/BF03202998.PMID 3737362. ^Ittelson,W.H.(Apr1951)."Sizeasacuetodistance:Radialmotion".AmericanJournalofPsychology.64(2):188–202.doi:10.2307/1418666.JSTOR 1418666.PMID 14829626. ^Wallach,H.;O'Connell,D.N.(1953)."Thekineticdeptheffect".JournalofExperimentalPsychology.45(4):205–217.doi:10.1037/h0056880.PMID 13052853.S2CID 11979303. ^Kaufman,Lloyd(1974).SightandMind.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.pp. 139–141. ^GrundlagenderOptik.page24. ^GeorgEisner:PerspektiveundVisuellesSystem–WegezurWahrnehmungdesRaumespp.102–103 ^GeorgEisner:PerspektiveundVisuellesSystem–WegezurWahrnehmungdesRaumespage181 ^Sousa,R.,Brenner,E.,&Smeets,J.B.J.(2011)."Judginganunfamiliarobject'sdistancefromitsretinalimagesize".JournalofVision,11(9),10,1–6. 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Notes[edit] ^Theterm'parallaxvision'isoftenusedasasynonymforbinocularvision,andshouldnotbeconfusedwithmotionparallax.Theformerallowsfarmoreaccurategaugingofdepththanthelatter. Bibliography[edit] Howard,IanP.;Rogers,BrianJ.(2012).PerceivinginDepth.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Inthreevolumes Palmer,S.E.(1999).Visionscience:Photonstophenomenology.Cambridge,Mass.:BradfordBooks/MITPress.ISBN 9780262304016. Pirazzoli,G.P.(2015).LeCorbusier,Picasso,PolyphemusandOtherMonocularGiants/ealtrigigantimonòculi.Firenze,Italy:goWare. Pinker,Steven(1997)."TheMind'sEye".HowtheMindWorks.pp. 211–233.ISBN 978-0-393-31848-7. SternbergRJ,SternbergK,SternbergK(2011).CognitivePsychology(6th ed.).WadsworthPubCo. PurvesD,LottoB(2003).WhyWeSeeWhatWeDo:AnEmpiricalTheoryofVision.Sunderland,Mass.:SinauerAssociates. Steinman,ScottB.;Steinman,BarbaraA.;Garzia,RalphPhilip(2000).FoundationsofBinocularVision:AClinicalPerspective.NewYork:McGraw-HillMedical.ISBN 978-0-8385-2670-5. Okoshi,Takanori.(2012).Three-dimensionalimagingtechniques.Elsevier.p. 387.ASIN B01D3RGBGS. Externallinks[edit] WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoDepthperception. Depthperceptionexample|GOIllusions. MonocularGiants WhatisBinocular(Two-eyed)DepthPerception? WhySomePeopleCan'tSeeinDepth Spaceperception|Webvision. Depthperception|Webvision. Make3D. 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