Negligence - Wikipedia

Negligence (Lat. negligentia) is a failure to exercise appropriate and/or ethical ruled care expected to be exercised amongst specified circumstances. Negligence FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Failuretoexercisethecarethatareasonablyprudentpersonwouldexerciseinlikecircumstances Forotheruses,seeNegligence(disambiguation). PartofthecommonlawseriesTortlaw Intentionaltorts Assault Battery Falseimprisonment Intentionalinflictionofemotionaldistress Transferredintent Propertytorts Trespass land chattels Conversion Copyrightinfringement Detinue Replevin Trover Defenses Assumptionofrisk Comparativenegligence Contributorynegligence Consent Necessity Statuteoflimitations Self-defense Defenseofothers Defenseofproperty Shopkeeper'sprivilege Negligence Dutyof/standardofcare Proximatecause Resipsaloquitur Calculusofnegligence Rescuedoctrine Dutytorescue Negligentinflictionofemotionaldistress Employment-related Entrustment Malpractice legal medical Liabilitytorts Productliability Quasi-tort Ultrahazardousactivity Nuisance Publicnuisance RylandsvFletcher Dignitarytorts Appropriation Defamation Invasionofprivacy IntrusiononSeclusion Falselight Breachofconfidence Abuseofprocess Maliciousprosecution Alienationofaffections Criminalconversation Seduction Breachofpromise Economictorts Fraud Tortiousinterference Conspiracy Restraintoftrade Liabilityandremedies Lastclearchance Eggshellskull Vicariousliability Respondeatsuperior Volentinonfitinjuria Exturpicausanonorituractio Neutralreportage Damages Injunction Conflictoftortlaws Jointandseveralliability Comparativeresponsibility Marketshareliability Dutytovisitors Trespassers Licensees Invitees Attractivenuisance Othercommonlawareas Contracts Criminallaw Evidence Property Wills,trusts,andestates  Lawportalvte Negligence(Lat.negligentia)[1]isafailuretoexerciseappropriateand/orethicalruledcareexpectedtobeexercisedamongstspecifiedcircumstances.[2]Theareaoftortlawknownasnegligenceinvolvesharmcausedbyfailingtoactasaformofcarelessnesspossiblywithextenuatingcircumstances.Thecoreconceptofnegligenceisthatpeopleshouldexercisereasonablecareintheiractions,bytakingaccountofthepotentialharmthattheymightforeseeablycausetootherpeopleorproperty.[3] Someonewhosufferslosscausedbyanother'snegligencemaybeabletosuefordamagestocompensatefortheirharm.Suchlossmayincludephysicalinjury,harmtoproperty,psychiatricillness,oreconomicloss.Thelawonnegligencemaybeassessedingeneraltermsaccordingtoafive-partmodelwhichincludestheassessmentofduty,breach,actualcause,proximatecause,anddamages.[4] Contents 1Elementsofnegligenceclaims 1.1Dutyofcare 1.2Breachofduty 1.2.1Intentionand/ormalice 1.3Causation 1.3.1Factualcausation(actualcause) 1.3.2Legalcausation(proximatecause) 1.4Injury 2Damages 3ProcedureintheUnitedStates 4SpecialDoctrines 5Seealso 6Notes 7References 7.1Citations 8Externallinks Elementsofnegligenceclaims[edit] Somethingsmustbeestablishedbyanyonewhowantstosueinnegligence.Thesearewhatarecalledthe"elements"ofnegligence. Mostjurisdictionssaythattherearefourelementstoanegligenceaction:[5] duty:thedefendanthasadutytoothers,includingtheplaintiff,toexercisereasonablecare, breach:thedefendantbreachesthatdutythroughanactorculpableomission, damages:asaresultofthatactoromission,theplaintiffsuffersaninjury,and causation:theinjurytotheplaintiffisareasonablyforeseeableconsequenceofthedefendant'sactoromission. Somejurisdictionsnarrowthedefinitiondowntothreeelements:duty,breachandproximatelycausedharm.[6]Somejurisdictionsrecognizefiveelements,duty,breach,actualcause,proximatecause,anddamages.[6]However,attheirheart,thevariousdefinitionsofwhatconstitutesnegligentconductareverysimilar. Dutyofcare[edit] Mainarticle:Dutyofcare AdecomposedsnailinScotlandwasthehumblebeginningofthemodernEnglishlawofnegligence Thelegalliabilityofadefendanttoaplaintiffisbasedonthedefendant'sfailuretofulfilaresponsibility,recognisedbylaw,ofwhichtheplaintiffistheintendedbeneficiary.Thefirststepindeterminingtheexistenceofalegallyrecognisedresponsibilityistheconceptofanobligationorduty.Inthetortofnegligencethetermusedisdutyofcare[7] ThecaseofDonoghuevStevenson[8][1932]establishedthemodernlawofnegligence,layingthefoundationsofthedutyofcareandthefaultprinciplewhich,(throughthePrivyCouncil),havebeenadoptedthroughouttheCommonwealth.MayDonoghueandherfriendwereinacaféinPaisley.ThefriendboughtMrsDonoghueagingerbeerfloat.Shedranksomeofthebeerandlaterpouredtheremainderoverherice-creamandwashorrifiedtoseethedecomposedremainsofasnailexitthebottle.Donoghuesufferednervousshockandgastro-enteritis,butdidnotsuethecafeowner,insteadsuingthemanufacturer,Stevenson.(AsMrsDonoghuehadnotherselfboughtthegingerbeer,thedoctrineofprivityprecludedacontractualactionagainstStevenson). TheScottishjudge,LordMacMillan,consideredthecasetofallwithinanewcategoryofdelict(theScotslawnearestequivalentoftort).ThecaseproceededtotheHouseofLords,whereLordAtkininterpretedthebiblicalordinanceto'lovethyneighbour'asalegalrequirementto'notharmthyneighbour.'Hethenwentontodefineneighbouras"personswhoaresocloselyanddirectlyaffectedbymyactthatIoughtreasonablytohavethemincontemplationasbeingsoaffectedwhenIamdirectingmymindtotheactsoromissionsthatarecalledinquestion." InEnglandthemorerecentcaseofCaparoIndustriesPlcvDickman[1990]introduceda'threefoldtest'foradutyofcare.Harmmustbe(1)reasonablyforeseeable(2)theremustbearelationshipofproximitybetweentheplaintiffanddefendantand(3)itmustbe'fair,justandreasonable'toimposeliability.However,theseactasguidelinesforthecourtsinestablishingadutyofcare;muchoftheprincipleisstillatthediscretionofjudges. InAustralia,DonoghuevStevensonwasusedasapersuasiveprecedentinthecaseofGrantvAustralianKnittingMills(AKR)(1936).[9]ThiswasalandmarkcaseinthedevelopmentofnegligencelawinAustralia.[10] Whetheradutyofcareisowedforpsychiatric,asopposedtophysical,harmwasdiscussedintheAustraliancaseofTamevStateofNewSouthWales;AnnettsvAustralianStationsPtyLtd(2002).[11][12]DeterminingadutyformentalharmhasnowbeensubsumedintotheCivilLiabilityAct2002inNewSouthWales.[13]TheapplicationofPart3oftheCivilLiabilityAct2002(NSW)wasdemonstratedinWicksvSRA(NSW);SheehanvSRA(NSW).[14] Breachofduty[edit] Seealso:BreachofdutyinEnglishlaw InBoltonvStone,theEnglishLawLordsweresympathetictocricketplayers Onceitisestablishedthatthedefendantowedadutytotheplaintiff/claimant,thematterofwhetherornotthatdutywasbreachedmustbesettled.[15]Thetestisbothsubjectiveandobjective.Thedefendantwhoknowingly(subjective,whichistotallybasedonobservationandpersonalprejudiceorview)exposestheplaintiff/claimanttoasubstantialriskofloss,breachesthatduty.Thedefendantwhofailstorealizethesubstantialriskoflosstotheplaintiff/claimant,whichanyreasonableperson[objective,Whichistotallybasedongroundfactsandrealitywithoutanypersonalprejudiceorpointofview.]inthesamesituationwouldclearlyhaverealized,alsobreachesthatduty.[16][17]However,whetherthetestisobjectiveorsubjectivemaydependupontheparticularcaseinvolved. Thereisareducedthresholdforthestandardofcareowedbychildren.IntheAustraliancaseofMcHalevWatson,[18]McHale,a9-year-oldgirlwasblindedinoneeyeafterbeinghitbythericochetofasharpmetalrodthrownbya12-year-oldboy,Watson.Thedefendantchildwasheldnottohavethelevelofcaretothestandardofanadult,butofa12-year-oldchildwithsimilarexperienceandintelligence.KittoJexplainedthatachild'slackofforesightisacharacteristictheysharewithothersatthatstageofdevelopment.ThesameprinciplewasdemonstratedtoexistinEnglishlawinMullinvRichards.[19] Certainjurisdictions,alsoprovideforbreacheswhereprofessionals,suchasdoctors,failtowarnofrisksassociatedwithmedicaltreatmentsorprocedures.Doctorsowebothobjectiveandsubjectivedutiestowarn;andbreachofeitherissufficienttosatisfythiselementinacourtoflaw.Forexample,theCivilLiabilityActinQueenslandoutlinesastatutorytestincorporatingbothobjectiveandsubjectiveelements.[20]Forexample,anobstetricianwhofailstowarnamotherofcomplicationsarisingfromchildbirthmaybeheldtohavebreachedtheirprofessionaldutyofcare. InDonoghuevStevenson,LordMacmillandeclaredthat"thecategoriesofnegligenceareneverclosed";andinDorsetYachtvHomeOfficeitwasheldthatthegovernmenthadnoimmunityfromsuitwhentheynegligentlyfailedtopreventtheescapeofjuvenileoffenderswhosubsequentlyvandaliseaboatyard.Inotherwords,allmembersofsocietyhaveadutytoexercisereasonablecaretowardothersandtheirproperty.InBoltonv.Stone(1951),[21]theHouseofLordsheldthatadefendantwasnotnegligentifthedamagetotheplaintiffwerenotareasonablyforeseeableconsequenceofhisconduct.Inthecase,aMissStonewasstruckontheheadbyacricketballwhilestandingoutsideacricketground.FindingthatnobatsmanwouldnormallybeablehitacricketballfarenoughtoreachapersonstandingasfarawayaswasMissStone,thecourtheldherclaimwouldfailbecausethedangerwasnotreasonablyorsufficientlyforeseeable.Asstatedintheopinion,'reasonablerisk'cannotbejudgedwiththebenefitofhindsight.[citationneeded]InRoevMinisterofHealth,[22]LordDenningsaidthepastshouldnotbeviewedthroughrosecolouredspectacles,findingnonegligenceonthepartofmedicalprofessionalsaccusedofusingcontaminatedmedicaljars,sincecontemporarystandardswouldhaveindicatedonlyalowpossibilityofmedicaljarcontamination. UnitedStatesv.CarrollTowingCo.159F.2d169(2d.Cir.1947) FortheruleintheU.S.,see:Calculusofnegligence Intentionand/ormalice[edit] Furtherestablishmentofconditionsofintentionormalicewhereapplicablemayapplyincasesofgrossnegligence.[23] Causation[edit] Mainarticle:Causation(law) Inorderforliabilitytoresultfromanegligentactoromission,itisnecessarytoprovenotonlythattheinjurywascausedbythatnegligence,butalsothatthereisalegallysufficientconnectionbetweentheactandthenegligence. Factualcausation(actualcause)[edit] Seealso:CausationinEnglishlawandBreakingthechain Foradefendanttobeheldliable,itmustbeshownthattheparticularactsoromissionswerethecauseofthelossordamagesustained.[24]Althoughthenotionsoundssimple,thecausationbetweenone'sbreachofdutyandtheharmthatresultstoanothercanattimesbeverycomplicated.Thebasictestistoaskwhethertheinjurywouldhaveoccurred'butfor',orwithout,theaccusedparty'sbreachofthedutyowedtotheinjuredparty.[25][26][27]InAustralia,theHighCourthasheldthatthe'butfor'testisnottheexclusivetestofcausationbecauseitcannotaddressasituationwherethereismorethanonecauseofdamage.[26]When'butfor'testisnotsatisfiedandthecaseisanexceptionalone,acommonsensetest('WhetherandWhy'test)willbeapplied[28] Evenmoreprecisely,ifabreachingpartymateriallyincreasestheriskofharmtoanother,thenthebreachingpartycanbesuedtothevalueofharmthathecaused. Asbestoslitigationswhichhavebeenongoingfordecadesrevolvearoundtheissueofcausation.Interwovenwiththesimpleideaofapartycausingharmtoanotherareissuesoninsurancebillsandcompensations,whichsometimesdrovecompensatingcompaniesoutofbusiness. Legalcausation(proximatecause)[edit] Negligencecanleadtothissortofcollision:atrainwreckatGareMontparnassein1895. Sometimesfactualcausationisdistinguishedfrom'legalcausation'toavertthedangerofdefendantsbeingexposedto,inthewordsofCardozo,J.,"liabilityinanindeterminateamountforanindeterminatetimetoanindeterminateclass."[29]Itissaidanewquestionarisesofhowremoteaconsequenceaperson'sharmisfromanother'snegligence.Wesaythatone'snegligenceis'tooremote'(inEngland)ornota'proximatecause'(intheU.S.)ofanother'sharmifonewould'never'reasonablyforeseeithappening.Notethata'proximatecause'inU.S.terminology(todowiththechainofeventsbetweentheactionandtheinjury)shouldnotbeconfusedwiththe'proximitytest'undertheEnglishdutyofcare(todowithclosenessofrelationship).Theideaoflegalcausationisthatifnoonecanforeseesomethingbadhappening,andthereforetakecaretoavoidit,howcouldanyoneberesponsible?Forinstance,inPalsgrafv.LongIslandRailRoadCo.[30]thejudgedecidedthatthedefendant,arailway,wasnotliableforaninjurysufferedbyadistantbystander.Theplaintiff,Palsgraf,washitbycoin-operatedscalewhichtoppledbecauseoffireworksexplosionthatfellonherasshewaitedonatrainplatform.Thescalesfellbecauseofafar-awaycommotionbutitwasnotclearthatwhattypeofcommotioncausedthescaletofall,eitheritwastheexplosion'seffectortheconfusedmovementoftheterrifiedpeople.Atrainconductorhadruntohelpamanintoadepartingtrain.Themanwascarryingapackageashejoggedtojumpinthetraindoor.Thepackagehadfireworksinit.Theconductormishandledthepassengerorhispackage,causingthepackagetofall.Thefireworksslippedandexplodedonthegroundcausingshockwavestotravelthroughtheplatform,whichbecamethecauseofcommotiononplatform,andasaconsequence,thescalesfell.[note1]BecausePalsgrafwashurtbythefallingscales,shesuedthetraincompanywhoemployedtheconductorfornegligence.[note2] Thedefendanttraincompanyargueditshouldnotbeliableasamatteroflaw,becausedespitethefactthattheyemployedtheemployee,whowasnegligent,hisnegligencewastooremotefromtheplaintiff'sinjury.Onappeal,themajorityofthecourtagreed,withfourjudgesadoptingthereasons,writtenbyJudgeCardozo,thatthedefendantowednodutyofcaretotheplaintiff,becauseadutywasowedonlytoforeseeableplaintiffs.Threejudgesdissented,arguing,aswrittenbyJudgeAndrews,thatthedefendantowedadutytotheplaintiff,regardlessofforeseeability,becauseallmenoweoneanotheradutynottoactnegligently. Suchdisparityofviewsontheelementofremotenesscontinuestotroublethejudiciary.CourtsthatfollowCardozo'sviewhavegreatercontrolinnegligencecases.Ifthecourtcanfindthat,asamatteroflaw,thedefendantowednodutyofcaretotheplaintiff,theplaintiffwilllosehiscasefornegligencebeforehavingachancetopresenttothejury.Cardozo'sviewisthemajorityview.However,somecourtsfollowthepositionputforthbyJudgeAndrews.Injurisdictionsfollowingtheminorityrule,defendantsmustphrasetheirremotenessargumentsintermsofproximatecauseiftheywishthecourttotakethecaseawayfromthejury. Remotenesstakesanotherform,seeninTheWagonMound(No.2).[31]TheWagonMoundwasashipinSydneyharbour.Theshipleakedoilcreatingaslickinpartoftheharbour.Thewharfowneraskedtheshipowneraboutthedangerandwastoldhecouldcontinuehisworkbecausetheslickwouldnotburn.Thewharfownerallowedworktocontinueonthewharf,whichsentsparksontoaraginthewaterwhichignitedandcreatedafirewhichburntdownthewharf.ThePrivyCouncildeterminedthatthewharfowner'intervened'inthecausalchain,creatingaresponsibilityforthefirewhichcanceledouttheliabilityoftheshipowner. InAustraliatheconceptofremoteness,orproximity,wastestedwiththecaseofJaenschvCoffey.[12]Thewifeofapoliceman,MrsCoffeysufferedanervousshockinjuryfromtheaftermathofamotorvehiclecollisionalthoughshewasnotactuallyatthesceneatthetimeofthecollision.Thecourtupheldthat,inadditiontoitbeingreasonablyforeseeablethathiswifemightsuffersuchaninjury,itrequiredthattherebesufficientproximitybetweentheplaintiffandthedefendantwhocausedthecollision.Heretherewassufficientcausalproximity.SeealsoKavanaghvAkhtar,[32]ImbreevMcNeilly,[33]andTamevNSW.[11] Injury[edit] Eventhoughthereisbreachofduty,andthecauseofsomeinjurytothedefendant,aplaintiffmaynotrecoverunlesshecanprovethatthedefendant'sbreachcausedapecuniaryinjury.Thisshouldnotbemistakenwiththerequirementsthataplaintiffproveharmtorecover.Asageneralrule,aplaintiffcanonlyrelyonalegalremedytothepointthatheprovesthathesufferedaloss;itwasreasonablyforeseeable.Itmeanssomethingmorethanpecuniarylossisanecessaryelementoftheplaintiff'scaseinnegligence.Whendamagesarenotanecessaryelement,aplaintiffcanwinhiscasewithoutshowingthathesufferedanyloss;hewouldbeentitledtonominaldamagesandanyotherdamagesaccordingtoproof.(SeeConstantinevImperialHotelsLtd[1944]KB]). Negligenceisdifferentinthattheplaintiffmustprovehisloss,andaparticularkindofloss,torecover.Insomecases,adefendantmaynotdisputetheloss,buttherequirementissignificantincaseswhereadefendantcannotdenyhisnegligence,buttheplaintiffsufferednopecuniarylossasaresulteventhoughhehadsufferedemotionalinjuryordamagebuthecannotbecompensatedforthesekindoflosses.Theplaintiffcanbecompensatedforemotionalornon-pecuniarylossesontheconditionthatIftheplaintiffcanprovepecuniaryloss,thenhecanalsoobtaindamagesfornon-pecuniaryinjuries,suchasemotionaldistress. Therequirementofpecuniarylosscanbeshowninanumberofways.Aplaintiffwhoisphysicallyinjuredbyallegedlynegligentconductmayshowthathehadtopayamedicalbill.Ifhispropertyisdamaged,hecouldshowtheincomelostbecausehecouldnotuseit,thecosttorepairit,althoughhecouldonlyrecoverforoneofthesethings. Thedamagemaybephysical,purelyeconomic,bothphysicalandeconomic(lossofearningsfollowingapersonalinjury,[34])orreputational(inadefamationcase). InEnglishlaw,therighttoclaimforpurelyeconomiclossislimitedtoanumberof'special'andclearlydefinedcircumstances,oftenrelatedtothenatureofthedutytotheplaintiffasbetweenclientsandlawyers,financialadvisers,andotherprofessionswheremoneyiscentraltotheconsultativeservices. Emotionaldistresshasbeenrecognizedasanactionabletort.Generally,emotionaldistressdamageshadtobeparasitic.Thatis,theplaintiffcouldrecoverforemotionaldistresscausedbyinjury,butonlyifitaccompaniedaphysicalorpecuniaryinjury. Aclaimantwhohassufferedonlyemotionaldistressandnopecuniarylosswouldnotrecoverfornegligence.However,courtshaverecentlyallowedrecoveryforaplaintifftorecoverforpurelyemotionaldistressundercertaincircumstances.ThestatecourtsofCaliforniaallowedrecoveryforemotionaldistressalone –evenintheabsenceofanyphysicalinjury,whenthedefendantphysicallyinjuresarelativeoftheplaintiff,andtheplaintiffwitnessesit.[35] Theeggshellskullruleisalegaldoctrineupheldinsometortlawsystems,whichholdsthatatortfeasorisliableforthefullextentofdamagecaused,evenwheretheextentofthedamageisduetotheunforeseenfrailtyoftheclaimant.TheeggshellskullrulewasrecentlymaintainedinAustraliainthecaseofKavanaghvAkhtar.[32] Damages[edit] Mainarticle:Damages Damagesplaceamonetaryvalueontheharmdone,followingtheprincipleofrestitutioinintegrum(Latinfor"restorationtotheoriginalcondition").Thus,formostpurposesconnectedwiththequantificationofdamages,thedegreeofculpabilityinthebreachofthedutyofcareisirrelevant.Oncethebreachofthedutyisestablished,theonlyrequirementistocompensatethevictim. Oneofthemainteststhatisposedwhendeliberatingwhetheraclaimantisentitledtocompensationforatort,isthe"reasonableperson".[36]Thetestisself-explanatory:wouldareasonableperson(asdeterminedbyajudgeorjury),underthegivencircumstances,havedonewhatthedefendantdidtocausetheinjuryinquestion;or,inotherwords,wouldareasonableperson,actingreasonably,haveengagedinsimilarconductwhencomparedtotheonewhoseactionscausedtheinjuryinquestion?Simpleasthe"reasonableperson"testsounds,itisverycomplicated.Itisariskytestbecauseitinvolvestheopinionofeitherthejudgeorthejurythatcanbebasedonlimitedfacts.However,asvagueasthe"reasonableperson"testseems,itisextremelyimportantindecidingwhetherornotaplaintiffisentitledtocompensationforanegligencetort. Damagesarecompensatoryinnature.Compensatorydamagesaddressesaplaintiff/claimant'slosses(incasesinvolvingphysicalormentalinjurytheamountawardedalsocompensatesforpainandsuffering).Theawardshouldmaketheplaintiffwhole,sufficienttoputtheplaintiffbackinthepositionheorshewasbeforeDefendant'snegligentact.Anythingmorewouldunlawfullypermitaplaintifftoprofitfromthetort. Therearealsotwoothergeneralprinciplesrelatingtodamages.Firstly,theawardofdamagesshouldtakeplaceintheformofasinglelumpsumpayment.Therefore,adefendantshouldnotberequiredtomakeperiodicpayments(howeversomestatutesgiveexceptionsforthis).Secondly,theCourtisnotconcernedwithhowtheplaintiffusestheawardofdamages.Forexample,ifaplaintiffisawarded$100,000forphysicalharm,theplaintiffisnotrequiredtospendthismoneyonmedicalbillstorestorethemtotheiroriginalposition-theycanspendthismoneyanywaytheywant.[37] Typesofdamage Specialdamages-quantifiabledollarlossessufferedfromthedateofdefendant'snegligentact(thetort)uptoaspecifiedtime(provenattrial).Specialdamageexamplesincludelostwages,medicalbills,anddamagetopropertysuchasone'scar. Generaldamages-thesearedamagesthatarenotquantifiedinmonetaryterms(e.g.,there'snoinvoiceorreceiptastherewouldbetoprovespecialdamages).Ageneraldamageexampleisanamountforthepainandsufferingoneexperiencesfromacarcollision.Lastly,wheretheplaintiffprovesonlyminimallossordamage,orthecourtorjuryisunabletoquantifythelosses,thecourtorjurymayawardnominaldamages. Punitivedamages-Punitivedamagesaretopunishadefendant,ratherthantocompensateplaintiffs,innegligencecases.Inmostjurisdictionspunitivedamagesarerecoverableinanegligenceaction,butonlyiftheplaintiffshowsthatthedefendant’sconductwasmorethanordinarynegligence(i.e.,wantonandwillfulorreckless). Aggravateddamages-Incontrasttoexemplarydamages,compensationaregiventotheplaintiffwhentheharmisaggravatedbythedefendant'sconduct.Forexample,themannerofthiswrongfulactincreasedtheinjurybysubjectingtheplaintifftohumiliation,insult.[38] ProcedureintheUnitedStates[edit] TheUnitedStatesgenerallyrecognizesfourelementstoanegligenceaction:duty,breach,proximatecausationandinjury.[39]Aplaintiffwhomakesanegligenceclaimmustproveallfourelementsofnegligenceinordertowinhisorhercase.[40]Therefore,ifitishighlyunlikelythattheplaintiffcanproveoneoftheelements,thedefendantmayrequestjudicialresolutionearlyon,topreventthecasefromgoingtoajury.Thiscanbebywayofademurrer,motiontodismiss,ormotionforsummaryjudgment.[41] Theelementsallowadefendanttotestaplaintiff'saccusationsbeforetrial,aswellasprovidingaguidetothefinderoffactattrial(thejudgeinabenchtrial,orjuryinajurytrial)todecidewhetherthedefendantisorisnotliable.Whetherthecaseisresolvedwithorwithouttrialagaindependsheavilyontheparticularfactsofthecase,andtheabilityofthepartiestoframetheissuestothecourt.Thedutyandcausationelementsinparticulargivethecourtthegreatestopportunitytotakethecasefromthejury,becausetheydirectlyinvolvequestionsofpolicy.[42]Thecourtcanfindthatregardlessofanydisputedfacts,thecasemayberesolvedasamatteroflawfromundisputedfactsbecauseasamatteroflawthedefendantcannotbelegallyresponsiblefortheplaintiff'sinjuryunderatheoryofnegligence.[42] Onappeal,dependingonthedispositionofthecaseandthequestiononappeal,thecourtreviewingatrialcourt'sdeterminationthatthedefendantwasnegligentwillanalyzeatleastoneoftheelementsofthecauseofactiontodetermineifitisproperlysupportedbythefactsandlaw.Forexample,inanappealfromafinaljudgmentafterajuryverdict,theappellatecourtwillreviewtherecordtoverifythatthejurywasproperlyinstructedoneachcontestedelement,andthattherecordshowssufficientevidenceforthejury'sfindings.Onanappealfromadismissalorjudgmentagainsttheplaintiffwithouttrial,thecourtwillreviewdenovowhetherthecourtbelowproperlyfoundthattheplaintiffcouldnotproveanyorallofhisorhercase.[43] SpecialDoctrines[edit] Resipsaloquitor.ThisisLatinfor"thethingspeaksforitself."Toprovenegligenceunderthisdoctrinetheplaintiffmustprove(1)theincidentdoesnotusuallyhappenwithoutnegligence,(2)theobjectthatcausedtheharmwasunderthedefendant'scontroland(3)theplaintiffdidnotcontributetothecause.[44] Negligencepersecomesdowntowhetherornotapartyviolatedastandardinlawmeanttoprotectthepublicsuchasabuildingcodeorspeedlimit.[45] Seealso[edit] Lawportal Carelessness Criminalnegligence Grossnegligence Intentionality Malpractice Medicalnegligence Mensrea Neglect NegligenceinEnglishLaw Notes[edit] ^Theplaintiff'sphysicalinjurieswereminorandmorelikelycausedbyastampedeoftravelersontheplatformratherthantheconcussionoftheexplodingfireworks.Thesedetailshavenot,however,stoppedthecasefrombecomingthesourceofextensivedebateinAmericantortlaw. ^Shecouldhavesuedthemanortheconductorhimself,buttheydidnothaveasmuchmoneyasthecompany.Often,inlitigation,wheretwodefendantsareequallyliablebutoneismoreabletosatisfyajudgment,hewillbethepreferreddefendantandisreferredtoasthe"deeppocket." References[edit] Citations[edit] ^"Negligence".OxfordLivingDictionaries.OxfordUniversityPress.Retrieved24July2017. ^"Negligence".BritannicaEnglish.MerriamWebster.Retrieved12June2011. ^Feinman,Jay(2010).Law101.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN 978-0-19-539513-6. ^Deakin,SimonF.;Markesinis,B.S.;Johnston,AngusC.(2003).MarkesinisandDeakin'sTortLaw(5 ed.).OxfordUniversityPress.p. 218.ISBN 9780199257119. ^Boehm,TheodoreR.(2003)."ATangledWebb-ReexaminingtheRoleofDutyinIndianaNegligenceActions".IndianaLawReview.37(1).Retrieved22September2017. ^abOwen,DavidG.(Summer2007)."TheFiveElementsofNegligence".HofstraLawReview.35(4):1671.Retrieved22September2017. ^Quill,Eoin(2014).TortsInIreland.Dublin12:Gill&Macmillan.p. 19.CS1maint:location(link) ^DonoghuevStevenson[1932]AC532 ^GrantvAustralianKnittingMills[1935]UKPC62,[1936]AC85;[1935]UKPCHCA1,(1935)54CLR49(21October1935),PrivyCouncil(onappealfromAustralia). ^"ExampleoftheDevelopmentoftheLawofNegligence"(PDF).law.uwa.edu.au.. ^abTamevStateofNewSouthWales;AnnettsvAustralianStationsPtyLtd[2002]HCA35,(2002)211CLR317,HighCourt(Australia). ^abJaenschvCoffey[1984]HCA52,(1984)155CLR549,HighCourt(Australia). ^CivilLiabilityAct2002(NSW)s 32. ^WicksvStateRailAuthorityofNewSouthWales;SheehanvStateRailAuthorityofNewSouthWales[2010]HCA22,(2010)241CLR60,HighCourt(Australia);seealsoKoehlervCerebos(Australia)Ltd[2005]HCA15,(2005)222CLR44,HighCourt(Australia). ^"BreachofDutyinNegligence".IPSALOQUITUR.Retrieved23October2019. ^WyongShireCouncilvShirt[1980]HCA12,(1980)146CLR40(1May1980),HighCourt(Australia). ^DoubledayvKelly[2005]NSWCA151,CourtofAppeal(NSW,Australia);seealsoDrinkwatervHowart[2006]NSWCA222,CourtofAppeal(NSW,Australia). ^McHalevWatson[1966]HCA13(7March1966),HighCourt(Australia). ^MullinvRichards[1998]1WLR1304 ^CivilLiabilityAct2003(Qld)s 21. ^Boltonv.Stone,[1951]A.C.850seealsoRoadsandTrafficAuthorityofNSWvDederer[2007]HCA42,HighCourt(Australia). ^RoevMinisterofHealth(1954)2AER131;seealsoGlasgowCorporationvMuir(1943)2AER44. ^Thornton,R.G.(2006)."Malice/grossnegligence".Proceedings(BaylorUniversity.MedicalCenter).19(4):417–418.doi:10.1080/08998280.2006.11928212.PMC 1618741.PMID 17106507. ^TubemakersofAustraliaLtdvFernandez(1976)10ALR303;(1976)50ALJR720LawCiterecords. ^AdeelsPalacePtyLtdvMoubarak;AdeelsPalacePtyLtdvBouNajem[2009]HCA48,HighCourt(Australia);StrongvWoolworths[2012]HCA5,(2012)246CLR182,HighCourt(Australia); ^abMarchvStramare(E&MH)PtyLtd[1991]HCA12,(1991)171CLR506,HighCourt(Australia). ^WallacevKam[2013]HCA19,HighCourt(Australia). ^CivilLiabilityAct2005(NSW)s 5d(2). ^UltramaresCorp.v.Touche(1931)255N.Y.170,174N.E.441 ^Palsgrafv.LongIslandRailRoadCo.(1928)162N.E.99 ^OverseasTankship(UK)LtdvTheMillerSteamshipCo(WagonMoundNo.2)[1966]UKPC10,[1967]AC617;[1967]2AllER709(25May1966),PrivyCouncil(onappealfromNSW). ^abKavanaghvAkhtar[1998]NSWSC779,SupremeCourt(NSW,Australia). ^ImbreevMcNeilly[2008]HCA40,HighCourt(Australia). ^See,eg,SharmanvEvans[1977]HCA8,(1977)138CLR563,HighCourt(Australia). ^SeeDillonv.Legg,68Cal.2d728(1968)andMolienv.KaiserFoundationHospitals,27Cal.3d916(1980). ^BlythvBirminghamWaterworksCo(1856)ExCh781 ^TodorovicvWaller[1981]HCA72,(1981)150CLR402,HighCourt(Australia). ^StateofNSWvRiley[2003]NSWCA208,CourtofAppeal(NSW,Australia). ^Larson,Aaron(21December2016)."NegligenceandTortLaw".ExpertLaw.Retrieved22September2017. ^Healey,PaulD.(1995)."ChickenLittleattheReferenceDesk:TheMythofLibrarianLiability".LawLibraryJournal.87:515.Retrieved22September2017. ^Currie,DavidP.(Autumn1977)."ThoughtsonDirectedVerdictsandSummaryJudgments".TheUniversityofChicagoLawReview.45(1):72–79.doi:10.2307/1599201.JSTOR 1599201. ^abMcLauchlan,WilliamP.(June1977)."AnEmpiricalStudyoftheFederalSummaryJudgmentRule".TheJournalofLegalStudies.6(2):427–459.doi:10.1086/467581.S2CID 153380489. ^Hofer,RonaldR.(1990)."StandardsofReview-LookingbeyondtheLabels".MarquetteLawReview.74.Retrieved22September2017. ^"ResIpsaLoquitur".LII/LegalInformationInstitute.Retrieved2020-04-12. ^"negligenceperse".LII/LegalInformationInstitute.Retrieved2020-04-12. Externallinks[edit] Chisholm,Hugh,ed.(1911)."Negligence" .EncyclopædiaBritannica.19(11th ed.).CambridgeUniversityPress.pp. 342–343.—Britannica1911'saccountofnegligence:aninterestinghistoricalread,precedingtheeraofBuickMotorandDonoghuev.Stevenson. vteLawCoresubjects Administrativelaw Civillaw Constitutionallaw Contract Criminallaw Deed Equity Evidence Internationallaw Lawofobligations Privatelaw Procedure Civil Criminal Propertylaw Publiclaw Restitution Statutorylaw Tort Othersubjects Agriculturallaw Aviationlaw Amnestylaw Bankinglaw Bankruptcy Commerciallaw Competitionlaw Conflictoflaws Constructionlaw Consumerprotection Corporatelaw Cyberlaw Electionlaw Energylaw Entertainmentlaw Environmentallaw Familylaw Financiallaw Financialregulation Healthlaw Historyofthelegalprofession HistoryoftheAmericanlegalprofession Immigrationlaw Intellectualproperty Internationalcriminallaw Internationalhumanrights Internationalslaverylaws Jurimetrics Labour Lawofwar Legalarchaeology Legalfiction Maritimelaw Medialaw Militarylaw Nationalitylaw Probate Estate Willandtestament Productliability Publicinternationallaw Spacelaw Sportslaw Taxlaw Transportlaw Trustlaw Unenforcedlaw Womeninlaw Sourcesoflaw Charter Legalcode/Statutorylaw Constitution Custom Divineright Divinelaw Humanrights Naturallaw Naturalandlegalrights Caselaw Precedent Lawreports Legaltreatise Regulations Lawmaking Ballotmeasure Codification Decree Edict Executiveorder Proclamation Legislation Delegatedlegislation Regulation Rulemaking Promulgation Repeal Treaty Concordat Statutorylaw Statute ActofParliament ActofCongress(US) Legalsystems Civillaw Commonlaw Chineselaw Legalpluralism Religiouslaw Canonlaw Catholiccanonlaw Hindulaw Jainlaw Jewishlaw Parsilaw Sharia Romanlaw Socialistlaw Statutorylaw Xeer Yassa Legaltheory Anarchist Contracttheory Criticallegalstudies Comparativelaw Feminist FundamentaltheoryofCatholiccanonlaw Lawandeconomics Legalformalism History Libertarian Internationallegaltheory Principleoflegality Principleoftypicality Ruleoflaw Sociology Jurisprudence Adjudication Administrationofjustice Criminaljustice Court-martial Disputeresolution Fiqh Lawsuit/Litigation Legalopinion Legalremedy Judge Justiceofthepeace Magistrate Judgment Judicialreview Jurisdiction Jury Justice Practiceoflaw Attorney Barrister Counsel Lawyer Legalrepresentation Prosecutor Solicitor Questionoffact Questionoflaw Trial Trialadvocacy Trieroffact Verdict Legalinstitutions Bureaucracy Thebar Thebench Civilsociety Court Courtofequity Electioncommission Executive Judiciary Lawenforcement Legaleducation Lawschool Legislature Military Police Politicalparty Tribunal Category Index Outline Portal AuthoritycontrolGeneral IntegratedAuthorityFile(Germany) Other MicrosoftAcademic Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Negligence&oldid=1046664375" Categories:TortlawLawofnegligenceLegaldoctrinesandprinciplesHiddencategories:CS1maint:locationArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionmatchesWikidataAllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromMarch2017Wikipediaarticlesincorporatingacitationfromthe1911EncyclopaediaBritannicawithWikisourcereferenceArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithMAidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk Variants expanded collapsed Views ReadEditViewhistory More expanded collapsed Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Languages العربيةБългарскиČeštinaCymraegDeutschΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFrançais한국어עבריתҚазақшаBahasaMelayuNederlandsनेपालभाषा日本語NorskbokmålPolskiPortuguêsРусскийSimpleEnglishSlovenčinaSuomiSvenskaதமிழ்ไทยTürkçeУкраїнська中文 Editlinks