Reactance (psychology) - Wikipedia

Theory Reactance(psychology) FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Unpleasantemotionexperiencedwhenbehavioralfreedomisthreatened Forotheruses,seeReactance(disambiguation). PartofaseriesonPsychology Outline History Subfields Basictypes Abnormal Behavioral Behavioralgenetics Biological Cognitive/Cognitivism Comparative Cross-cultural Cultural Differential Developmental Evolutionary Experimental Mathematical Neuropsychology Personality Positive Psychodynamic Quantitative Social Appliedpsychology Appliedbehavioranalysis Clinical Community Consumer Counseling Critical Educational Environmental Ergonomics Forensic Health Humanistic Industrialandorganizational Psychometrics Legal Medical Military Music Occupationalhealth Political Religion School Sport Traffic Lists Disciplines Organizations Psychologists Psychotherapies Publications Researchmethods Theories Timeline Topics  Psychologyportalvte Reactanceisanunpleasantmotivationalarousal(reaction)tooffers,persons,rules,orregulationsthatthreatenoreliminatespecificbehavioralfreedoms.Reactanceoccurswhenapersonfeelsthatsomeoneorsomethingistakingawaytheirchoicesorlimitingtherangeofalternatives. Reactancecanoccurwhensomeoneisheavilypressuredtoacceptacertainvieworattitude.Reactancecancausethepersontoadoptorstrengthenavieworattitudethatiscontrarytowhatwasintended,andalsoincreasesresistancetopersuasion.Peopleusingreversepsychologyareplayingonreactance,attemptingtoinfluencesomeonetochoosetheoppositeofwhattheyrequest. Someindividualsarenaturallyhighinreactance,apersonalitycharacteristiccalledtraitreactance. Contents 1Definition 2Theory 3Effects 4Empiricalevidence 5Measurement 6Seealso 7References 7.1Bibliography Definition[edit] Psychologicalreactanceis"anunpleasantmotivationalarousalthatemergeswhenpeopleexperienceathreattoorlossoftheirfreebehaviors."[1][2][3]Anindividual'sfreedomtoselectwhenandhowtoconducttheirbehavior,andtheleveltowhichtheyareawareoftherelevantfreedom—andareabletodeterminebehaviorsnecessarytosatisfythatfreedom—affectthegenerationofpsychologicalreactance.Itisassumedthatifaperson'sbehavioralfreedomisthreatenedorreduced,theybecomemotivationallyaroused.Thefearoflossoffurtherfreedomscansparkthisarousalandmotivatethemtore-establishthethreatenedfreedom.Becausethismotivationalstateisaresultoftheperceivedreductionofone'sfreedomofaction,itisconsideredacounterforce,andthusiscalled"psychologicalreactance". Therearefourimportantelementstoreactancetheory:perceivedfreedom,threattofreedom,reactance,andrestorationoffreedom.Freedomisnotanabstractconsideration,butratherafeelingassociatedwithrealbehaviors,includingactions,emotions,andattitudes. Reactancealsoexplainsdenialasitisencounteredinaddictioncounselling.AccordingtoWilliamR.Miller,[4]"Researchdemonstratesthatacounselorcandriveresistance(denial)levelsupanddowndramaticallyaccordingtohisorherpersonalcounselingstyle".Useofa"respectful,reflectiveapproach"describedinmotivationalinterviewingandappliedasmotivationalenhancementtherapy,ratherthanbyargumentation,theaccusationof"beingindenial",anddirectconfrontations,leadtothemotivationtochangeandavoidtheresistanceanddenial,orreactance,elicitedbystrongdirectconfrontation.[5] Theory[edit] Reactancetheoryassumesthereare"freebehaviors"individualsperceiveandcantakepartinatanygivenmoment.Forabehaviortobefree,theindividualmusthavetherelevantphysicalandpsychologicalabilitiestopartakeinit,andmustknowtheycanengageinitatthemoment,orinthenearfuture. "Behavior"includesanyimaginableact.Morespecifically,behaviorsmaybeexplainedas"whatonedoes(ordoesn'tdo)","howonedoessomething",or"whenonedoessomething".Itisnotalwaysclear,toanobserver,ortheindividualsthemselves,iftheyholdaparticularfreedomtoengageinagivenbehavior.Whenapersonhassuchafreebehaviortheyarelikelytoexperiencereactancewheneverthatbehaviorisrestricted,eliminated,orthreatenedwithelimination. Thereareseveralrulesassociatedwithfreebehaviorsandreactance: Whencertainfreebehaviorsarethreatenedorremoved,themoreimportantafreebehavioristoacertainindividualthegreaterthemagnitudeofthereactance.[citationneeded] Thelevelofreactancehasadirectrelationshiptotheimportanceoftheeliminatedorthreatenedbehavioralfreedom,inrelationshiptotheimportanceofotherfreedomsatthetime.Withagivensetoffreebehaviors,thegreatertheproportionthreatenedoreliminated,thegreaterwillbethetotallevelofreactance.Whenanimportantfreebehaviorhasbeenthreatenedwithelimination,thegreaterwillbethethreat,andthegreaterwillbethelevelofreactance. Whenthereisalossofasinglefreebehavior,theremaybebyimplicationarelatedthreatofremovalofotherfreebehaviorsnoworinthefuture.Afreebehaviormaybethreatenedoreliminatedbyvirtueoftheelimination(orthreatofelimination)ofanotherfreebehavior;thereforeafreebehaviormaybethreatenedbytherelationoftheeliminationof(orthreatto)anotherperson'sfreebehavior. Othercoreconceptsofthetheoryarejustificationandlegitimacy.Apossibleeffectofjustificationisalimitationofthethreattoaspecificbehaviororsetofbehaviors.Forexample,ifMrDoestatesthatheisinterferingwithMrs.Smith'sexpectationsbecauseofanemergency,thiskeepsMrsSmithfromimaginingthatMrDoewillinterfereonfutureoccasionsaswell.Likewise,legitimacymaypointtoasetofbehaviorsthreatenedsincetherewillbeageneralassumptionthatanillegitimateinterferencewithaperson'sfreedomislesslikelytooccur.Withlegitimacythereisanadditionalimplicationthataperson'sfreedomisequivocal. Effects[edit] Inthephenomenologyofreactance,thereisnoassumptionthatapersonwillbeawareofreactance.Whenpersonsbecomeawareofreactance,theywillfeelahigherlevelofself-directioninrelationshiptotheirownbehaviour.Inotherwords,theywillfeelthatiftheyareabletodowhattheywant,thentheydonothavetodowhattheydonotwant.Inthiscase,whenthefreedomisinquestion,thatpersonaloneisthedirectoroftheirownbehaviour. Whenconsideringthedirectre-establishmentoffreedom,thegreaterthemagnitudeofreactance,themoretheindividualwilltrytore-establishthefreedomthathasbeenlostorthreatened.Whenafreedomisthreatenedbyasocialpressure,thenreactancewillleadapersontoresistthatpressure.Also,whentherearerestraintsagainstadirectre-establishmentoffreedom,therecanbeattemptsatre-establishmentbyimplicationwheneverpossible. Freedomcanandmaybereestablishedbyasocialimplication.Whenanindividualhaslostfreebehaviorbecauseofasocialthreat,thentheparticipationinafree-likebehaviorbyasimilarpersonwillallowonetore-establishone'sfreedom. Reactanceisamotivationalstatethatisaimedatre-establishmentofathreatenedoreliminatedfreedom.Inshort,thelevelofreactancehasadirectrelationshipwiththeimportanceoftheeliminatedorthreatenedfreedom,andtheproportionoffreebehaviourseliminatedorthreatened. Empiricalevidence[edit] Anumberofstudieshavelookedatpsychologicalreactance,providingempiricalevidenceforthebehaviour;somekeystudiesarediscussedbelow. Brehm's1981study"Psychologicalreactanceandtheattractivenessofunobtainableobjects:sexdifferencesinchildren'sresponsestoaneliminationoffreedom"examinedthedifferencesinsexandageinachild'sviewoftheattractivenessofobtainedandunobtainableobjects.Thestudyreviewedhowwellchildrenrespondinthesesituationsanddeterminedifthechildrenbeingobservedthoughtthe"grasswasgreenerontheotherside".Italsodeterminedhowwellthechildmadepeacewiththeworldiftheydevaluedwhattheycouldnothave.Thisworkconcludedthatwhenachildcannothavewhattheywant,theyexperienceemotionalconsequencesofnotgettingit.[6] InthisstudytheresultswereduplicatedfromapreviousstudybyHammockandJ.Brehm(1966).Themalesubjectswantedwhattheycouldnotobtain,howeverthefemalesubjectsdidnotconformtothetheoryofreactance.Althoughtheirfreedomtochoosewastakenaway,ithadnooveralleffectonthem. Silvia's2005study"Deflectingreactance:Theroleofsimilarityinincreasingcomplianceandreducingresistance"concludedthatonewaytoincreasetheactivityofathreatenedfreedomistocensorit,orprovideathreateningmessagetowardtheactivity.Inturna"boomerangeffect"occurs,inwhichpeoplechooseforbiddenalternatives.Thisstudyalsoshowsthatsocialinfluencehasbetterresultswhenitdoesnotthreatenone'scorefreedoms.Twoconceptsrevealedinthisstudyarethatacommunicatormaybeabletoincreasethepositiveforcetowardscompliancebyincreasingtheircredibility,andthatincreasingthepositivecommunicationforceanddecreasingthenegativecommunicationforcesimultaneouslyshouldincreasecompliance.[7] Millerandcolleaguesconcludedintheir2006study,"Identifyingprincipalriskfactorsfortheinitiationofadolescentsmokingbehaviors:Thesignificanceofpsychologicalreactance",thatpsychologicalreactanceisanimportantindicatorinadolescentsmokinginitiation.Peerintimacy,peerindividuation,andintergenerationalindividuationarestrongpredictorsofpsychologicalreactance.Theoverallresultsofthestudyindicatethatchildrenthinkthattheyarecapableofmakingtheirowndecisions,althoughtheyarenotawareoftheirownlimitations.Thisisanindicatorthatadolescentswillexperiencereactancetoauthoritativecontrol,especiallytheproscriptionsandprescriptionsofadultbehaviorsthattheyviewashedonicallyrelevant.[8] Anumberofstudieshasalsolookedintomediauseandreactance.Forinstance,anexperimentthatexposedparticipantstoimmigrationmessagesthatwasthreatening(forexampleviagroupstereotypesanduncivillanguage)resultedinverylargereactance,intheformofangerandcounterarguing.[9] Measurement[edit] Dillard&Shenhaveprovidedevidencethatpsychologicalreactancecanbemeasured,[10]incontrasttothecontraryopinionofJackBrehm,whodevelopedthetheory.Intheirworktheymeasuredtheimpactofpsychologicalreactancewithtwoparallelstudies:oneadvocatingflossingandtheotherurgingstudentstolimittheiralcoholintake. Theyformedseveralconclusionsaboutreactance.Firstlyreactanceismostlycognitive;thisallowsreactancetobemeasurablebyself-reporttechniques.Also,insupportofpreviousresearch,theyconcludereactanceisinpartrelatedtoanangerresponse.ThisverifiesBrehm'sdescriptionthatduringthereactanceexperienceonetendstohavehostileoraggressivefeelings,oftenaimedmoreatthesourceofathreateningmessagethanatthemessageitself.Finally,withinreactance,bothcognitionandaffectareintertwined;DillardandShensuggesttheyaresointertwinedthattheireffectsonpersuasioncannotbedistinguishedfromeachother. DillardandShen'sresearchindicatesreactancecaneffectivelybestudiedusingestablishedself-reportmethods.Furthermore,itprovidedabetterunderstandingofreactancetheoryanditsrelationshiptopersuasivehealthcommunication. Millerandcolleaguesconductedtheir2007studyPsychologicalreactanceandpromotionalhealthmessages:theeffectsofcontrollinglanguage,lexicalconcreteness,andtherestorationoffreedomattheUniversityofOklahoma,withtheprimarygoalbeingtomeasuretheeffectsofcontrollinglanguageinpromotionalhealthmessages.Theirresearchrevisitedthenotionofrestoringfreedombyexaminingtheuseofashortpostscriptedmessagetaggedontheendofapromotionalhealthappeal.Theresultsofthestudyindicatedthatmoreconcretemessagesgenerategreaterattentionthanlessconcrete(moreabstract)messages.Also,thesourceofconcretemessagescanbeseenasmorecrediblethanthesourceofabstractmessages.Theyconcludedthattheuseofmoreconcrete,low-controllinglanguage,andtherestorationoffreedomthroughtheinclusionofachoice-emphasizingpostscript,mayofferthebestsolutiontoreducingambiguityandreactancecreatedbyovertlypersuasivehealthappeals.[11] Seealso[edit] Bre'erRabbitandtheTarBaby,anUncleRemustrickstertaleknownforitsquotation"Pleasedon'tflingmeinthatbriarpatch" Reversepsychology(anditerationsincluding"double[-]reversepsychology",etc.) Streisandeffect,thephenomenonwherebyanattempttohide,remove,orcensorapieceofinformationhastheunintendedconsequenceofpublicizingtheinformationmorewidely,usuallyfacilitatedbytheInternet. References[edit] ^Steindl,Christina;Jonas,Eva;Sittenthaler,Sandra;Traut-Mattausch,Eva;Greenberg,Jeff(2015)."UnderstandingPsychologicalReactance".ZeitschriftfürPsychologie.223(4):205–214.doi:10.1027/2151-2604/a000222.PMC 4675534.PMID 27453805. ^Brehm,J.W.(1966).Atheoryofpsychologicalreactance.AcademicPress. ^Brehm,S.S.,&Brehm,J.W.(1981).PsychologicalReactance:ATheoryofFreedomandControl.AcademicPress. ^Miller,W.R.(2000)MotivationalEnhancementTherapy:DescriptionofCounselingApproach.inBoren,J.J.Onken,L.S.,&Carroll,K.M.(Eds.)ApproachestoDrugAbuseCounseling,NationalInstituteonDrugAbuse,2000,pp.89–93. ^Miller,W.R.&Rollnick,S.MotivationalInterviewing:PreparingPeopletoChangeAddictiveBehavior.NY:GuilfordPress,1991. ^Brehm,SharonS.(1981)."Psychologicalreactanceandtheattractivenessofunobtainableobjects:Sexdifferencesinchildren'sresponsestoaneliminationoffreedom".SexRoles.7(9):937–949.doi:10.1007/BF00290976.S2CID 144603360. ^Silvia,PaulJ.(2005)."DeflectingReactance:TheRoleofSimilarityinIncreasingComplianceandReducingResistance".BasicandAppliedSocialPsychology.27(3):277–284.doi:10.1207/s15324834basp2703_9.S2CID 14554526. ^Miller,ClaudeH.;Burgoon,Michael;Grandpre,JosephR.;Alvaro,EusebioM.(2006)."IdentifyingPrincipalRiskFactorsfortheInitiationofAdolescentSmokingBehaviors:TheSignificanceofPsychologicalReactance".HealthCommunication.19(3):241–252.doi:10.1207/s15327027hc1903_6.PMID 16719727.S2CID 23194051. ^Dahlgren,PeterM.(2021)."Forcedvs.SelectiveExposure:ThreateningMessagesLeadtoAngerbutNotDislikeofPoliticalOpponents".JournalofMediaPsychology.doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000302. ^Dillard,JamesPrice;Shen,Lijiang(2005)."OntheNatureofReactanceanditsRoleinPersuasiveHealthCommunication".CommunicationMonographs.72(2):144–168.doi:10.1080/03637750500111815.S2CID 145303261. ^Miller,ClaudeH.;Lane,LindsayT.;Deatrick,LeslieM.;Young,AliceM.;Potts,KimberlyA.(2007)."PsychologicalReactanceandPromotionalHealthMessages:TheEffectsofControllingLanguage,LexicalConcreteness,andtheRestorationofFreedom".HumanCommunicationResearch.33(2):219–240.doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2007.00297.x. Bibliography[edit] Baron,RobertA.;et al.(2006).SocialPsychology.Pearson.ISBN 9780205444120. Mead,NicoleL.(2007)."Reactance".InBaumeister,Roy;Vohs,Kathleen(eds.).EncyclopediaofSocialPsychology.SAGEPublications.doi:10.4135/9781412956253.n433.ISBN 9781412916707. Roeckelein,J.E.,ed.(2006)."Reactancetheory".Elsevier'sDictionaryofPsychologicalTheories.Elsevier.pp. 507–508.ISBN 9780080460642. 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