Reactance Theory - The Decision Lab

This causeless rebellion against advice or instruction can be explained by reactance theory. Proposed by Jack W. Brehm in 1966, this theory posits that when ... Skiptocontent ReactanceTheory TheBasicIdea BlackDownChevronIcon TheBasicIdea KeyTerms History People Consequences Controversies CaseStudies RelatedTDLContent Sources TheBasicIdea KeyTerms History People JackW.Brehm Consequences Controversies CaseStudies RelatedTDLContent Sources TheBasicIdea Theory,meetpractice TDLisanappliedresearchconsultancy.Inourwork,weleveragetheinsightsofdiversefields—frompsychologyandeconomicstomachinelearningandbehavioraldatascience—tosculpttargetedsolutionstonuancedproblems. Ourconsultingservices Iconarrowrightwhitecolor Teenageyearsareinfamouslyknownasthemostdifficultandfrustratingtimeforparents.Teenagersareknowntonotlistentoanyone,bereckless,anddostupidthings.SomeofthemostpopularfilmsandTVshowsareaboutteenagerebellion–RebelWithoutaCause,WestSideStory,Footloose.EvenShakespeare’sgoodoldRomeoandJulietfeaturestwoteenagersrebellingagainsttheirfamilies’desires.“Teenage”hasbecomeaculturalphenomenonofitsown. However,itisn’tjustteenagerswhodotheoppositeofwhatthey’retold.Ifyoutellaheavydrinkertostopdrinking,theymayrespondbydrinkingevenmore.Ifasignforamuseumexhibitsays“donottouch,”wesuddenlyhavetheurgetotouchtheexhibit.WhenthegovernmenttoldpeopletowearfacemaskstoprotectothersfromCOVID-19,protestsensued,assomeviewedwearingamaskasanimpingementupontheirfreedom. Thiscauselessrebellionagainstadviceorinstructioncanbeexplainedbyreactancetheory.ProposedbyJackW.Brehmin1966,thistheorypositsthatwhenanindividualfeelsthattheirfreedomorcontrolisbeingthreatenedbyadvice,theyaremotivatedtoprotecttheirautonomy.1Inthissituation,the“forbiddenfruit”becomesmoredesirable,andtheindividualtriestoacquireitbyanymeans.1Moreoftenthannot,thisresultsinsomeonedoingtheoppositeofwhattheyaretold.Thisiswhypeoplerebelwithoutanyparticularcause–theywanttorestoretheirthreatenedfreedomandregaincontrol. Psychologicalreactancerevolvesaroundtheconceptoffreedom.Thus,ourperceptionoffreedominfluencestheextenttowhichwemayshowreactance.Therearefourbasicprinciplesimplicatedbythetheory: Inagivensituation,reactancecanonlyoccurwhenanindividualbelievestheyhavecontrolorfreedomovertheoutcome. Reactancetoathreatwillonlybeasgreatastheperceivedimportanceofthefreedom.Ifthefreedombeingthreatenedisveryimportant,reactancetoitwillalsobegreat. Thegreaternumberoffreedomsthreatened,thegreaterwillbethereactancearoused.Forinstance,ifapersonisaskedtostopdrinkingalcoholaltogether,thereactancetothismaybegreaterthaniftheyareaskedtodrinkinmoderateamounts. Reactancetoathreatmayincreasewhenthereareimplicationsofotherthreats.Forinstance,ifaprofessorasksastudentnottoeatinclass,thestudentmayinferthatthisalsomeansnottodrinkcoffeeorhavewater.Thereactancewillthusincrease.1   Thereisacharmabouttheforbiddenthatmakesitunspeakablydesirable. –MarkTwain,MarkTwain’sNotebook,1935 Theory,meetpractice TDLisanappliedresearchconsultancy.Inourwork,weleveragetheinsightsofdiversefields—frompsychologyandeconomicstomachinelearningandbehavioraldatascience—tosculpttargetedsolutionstonuancedproblems. Ourconsultingservices Iconarrowrightwhitecolor KeyTerms CognitiveDissonanceTheory:Whenindividualsfindtheirattitudes,values,orbeliefsconflictingwiththeirbehaviours,theyaremotivatedtoactinwaysthatalignattitudesandbehaviours,whichreducesanydiscomfortarisingfromthisdissonance.3Forinstance,ifasociallyawarepersonwhoinvestsinfastfashionlearnsabouttheunderpaidworkerswhoproduceit,theymayattempttodiminishthevalueofthisnewinformationbyexplainingitaway. TraitReactance:Aperson’sinherenttendenciesconsistentlyperceivesituationsasthreatstotheirfreedom.2Nomatterhowamessage,request,orpieceofadvicemightbeframed,theywillperceiveitasathreattotheirfreedom,resultinginreactance. ReversePsychology:Themainstreamtermfor“strategicself-anticonformity,”reversepsychologyisatacticusedwhenanindividualexpectsatargettodisagreewiththem,andindicatesafalsepositionwhichistheoppositeoftheirtruedesire.5Asexpected,thetargetdisagreesandismanipulatedintoagreeingwiththeindividual’strueposition.Forexample,ifyouwanttoeatatrestaurantA,butknowyourfriendtobedisagreeable,youmayindicatethatyouprefertoeatatrestaurantB.Withtheirfreedombeingthreatened,yourfriendwouldshowreactanceandchooserestaurantA–theplaceofyourchoice–whilebelievingthatitwastheirchoice. ProspectTheory:Alsoknownas“loss-aversiontheory,”thistheorysuggeststhatsincepeoplearemoresensitivetolossesthangains,theywouldtakemoreriskstoavoidlossesthanacquireequivalentgains.14 History JackW.Brehmfirstproposedthepsychologicalreactancetheoryinhisseminal1966paper.Thetheorystemmedfromcognitivedissonancetheory,proposedbyBrehm’sdissertationadvisor,LeonFestinger,in1957.2Accordingtocognitivedissonancetheory,peoplefeelasenseofdiscomfortwhentheirvaluesorbeliefsareinconflictwiththeirbehaviour.Motivatedtomaintainconsistencybetweenattitudesandbehaviours,theytrytoresolvethisdissonance,oftenbymakingchangesintheirattitudes.3Likecognitivedissonancetheory,reactancetheoryinvolvesreducingdiscrepancybetweenattitudesandbehaviours,specificallyfocusingonperceptionsoffreedomandsubsequentbehaviours.2 In1981,SharonS.BrehmandJackW.Brehmexpandedthetheorytoincludetheterm“traitreactance.”2Traitreactanceoccurswhenanindividualhasadispositionaltendencytoconsistentlyperceivethreatstotheirfreedom,andthusismotivatedtoregainit.2Thiswaveofresearchhasbeenespeciallyusefulinclinicalpsychologyandimprovingrelationsbetweentherapistsandclients. In1991,researchonreactancetheorywasexpandedintotherealmofcommunicationandmessageframingbyLillianSouthwickBensleyandRuiWu,whostudiedhowcollegestudentsreactedtodifferentlyframedanti-drinkingmessages.2Theydiscoveredthatstronglywordedmessagesofteninducedreactance.Furthermore,theyfoundthatmessagesweremosteffectivewhenpeopleareremindedoftheirfreedom,ifthemessageisnovel,usesanarrative,orforewarnspeopleofpotentialthreatstotheirfreedom.2 Afterampleresearchwasdonestudyingmethodstomeasurereactance,thefinalwavereturnedreactancetheoryresearchtomotivationalpsychology.2Brehmhadoriginallyproposedthetheoryasamotivationalconstruct,andfrom2006onwardsresearcherspairedthetheorywithothermotivationalframeworks,likeself-determinationtheory.2Thisreturnhassolidifiedreactancetheory’spositionwithintheareaofmotivationalpsychology. People    JackW.Brehm Bornin1928,JackW.Brehmisoneoftheworld’smostinfluentialmotivationalpsychologists.AftergraduatingfromHarvard,hecompletedhisPhDdissertationattheUniversityofMinnesota.WorkingunderLeonFestinger,hisdissertationwasthefirstcognitivedissonancestudytobepublished,whichlaterformedthefoundationforhiscornerstonetheory:psychologicalreactancetheory.Hiscontributions,however,didnotendthere.Inhislateryears,Brehmstudieddesireextensively,formulatingtwomoretheories:thetheoryofmotivationalintensityandthetheoryofemotionintensity.4 Consequences Oneofthemostcommonwaysweseereactancetheoryinplayisreversepsychology.Anindividualmayusethisstrategytotrickatargetintocomplyingwiththeirwishesbystatingtheoppositeoftheirtruepositiononasubject.5Forinstance,ifamotherwantsherrebelliousteenagertoreadacertainbook,shemaytellthemnottoreadit.Astheteenagerfeelsasiftheirfreedomofchoiceisbeingthreatened,theymayreadthebook.Themother’sintendedpurposewouldbeachieved,whiletheteenagerwouldbelievethatitwastheirownchoicetoreadthebook. Whilepopculturelikestousetheterm“reversepsychology”fairlyoften,itisdebatediftheconceptholdsanyscientificvalidity.AstudybyMacDonals,NailandHarpershowedthat72%oftheparticipantswereabletorecallatimewhentheyusedreversepsychologytogetreassurancefromaperson,while38%recalledatimewhentheyusedittopersuadesomeonetodosomething.5Whethereffectiveornot,reversepsychologyissurelyancommonlyusedpersuasiontactic,especiallyprevalentwhenindividualsneedreassuranceabouttheirownactions. Anotherareaofresearchthathasdrawnintensivelyfrompsychologicalreactancetheoryismessageframingandprospecttheory.Prospecttheorysuggeststhatpeoplearemorelikelytotakeriskswhenmessagesareframedintermsofgains,andlesslikelytodosowhentheyareframedintermsoflosses.6Ina2015study,itwaspostulatedthatprospecttheorymaybeanindirectconsequenceofreactancetheory.Researchersfoundthatmessagesframedintermsoflosscanarouseguilt,whichispositivelyassociatedwithperceptionsofthreatenedfreedom,thuselicitingbehavioursrelatedtothereactancetheory.6Theresearchersconcludedthatusinggain-framemessagingmaybemoreeffective,sinceitisassociatedwithhappinessarousalandlessreactance-relatedbehaviour.6 Studiesonmessageframinghavebecomeespeciallyusefulinhealthcommunicationandpersuasion.Overtheyears,researchershaveidentifiedseveralmessagecharacteristics–otherthangain-framemessaging–thatcanreducereactanceandincreasecompliancewithmessages.Forinstance,explicitmessageswhichdetailactionsthatpeopleshouldtakeareoftenperceivedasfreedomthreatening.7Includingarestorativepostscript,remindingpeoplethatitisfinallytheirchoicetofollowornotfollowtheadvice,reducesthethreattofreedom.7Providingotherswithchoicescanalsoreducereactance.Messagesthatelicitempathyfromreadersarealsoeffectiveinmitigatingreactanceandincreasingpersuasion.7 Finally,consumerbehaviourhasgainedsomeremarkableinsightsfromreactancetheory.Severalstudieshaveshownthatwhenproductsareunavailableorchoicesareeliminated,theunavailableproductsbecomemoredesirable.Ina1973fieldexperiment,Mazis,SettleandLesliecomparedopinionsofresidentsinMiami,wherephosphatedetergentswerebanned,andthoseinTampa,wherephosphatedetergentsweren’tbanned.ItwasfoundthatMiamiresidentsfavouredthephosphatedetergentsmorethanTamparesidents.8Further,customersarelesslikelytobuyproductswhenpromotionaloffersplacetightrestrictionsonthenumberofitemstheycanbuy.8Itisimportantforconsumerstofeelasthoughtheirfreedomofchoiceisintactwhilemakingbuyingdecisions. Controversies Someinterpretationsofpsychologicalreactancehavemisunderstoodwhatismeantby“freedom.”Forexample,ina1975paper,Dowdarguesthatideassuchaskinshipormaintainingreciprocalrelationshipsarelessprevalentamongeducated,highincome,middleclasssocietiesthaninworkingclassonesbecause“abstractconsiderations”ofpersonalfreedomaremorevaluedinmiddleclasses.9Inessence,socialnormsdictatethatapersonwhohasreceivedafavourshouldalsoreturnthefavour.However,bybeingobligatedtoreturnafavour,amiddleclassindividualmayfeeltheirfreedomthreatened,andmayendupnotgivingback.Thus,middleclasssocietiesmayexhibitmorereactance,whileworkingclasssocietiesmayexhibitlessastheyaremoreinclinedtomaintainfriendship,loyalty,andkinship.9 Unfortunately,Dowd’sanalysis,likeafewothercriticalworks,doesnotgraspattheintendedmeaningof“freedom.”Brehmassertsthathistheoryisnotbasedontheassumptionofgeneralfreedoms,likefreedomofchoiceorindependence,butratheronspecificfreedoms,likeachoicebetweenonefilmandanother.10Thisspecificfreedomdoesnotthreatenotherspecificfreedoms,itmaybemoreorlessimportantthanotherfreedoms,itmaybeconnectedtootherspecificfreedoms,anditsmagnitudemaybemeasured.10Hence,“freedom”istreatedmoreasacountablenoun,ratherthananabstractconcept.Thisisanimportantclarificationtoconsiderwithregardstopsychologicalreactance. CaseStudies ChildDevelopmentandPsychologicalReactance Peoplesaythatittakesavillagetoraiseachild.Afterall,takingcareoftheirneeds,makingsuretheydon’tgethurt,andallowingthemtogrowandbecometheirownpersonaredifficultandtimeconsumingtasks.Toachievethesegoals,parentsmustexerciseacertaindegreeofcontrolovertheirchildren.However,therearemultipledimensionstoparentalcontrol,someofwhichcanbedetrimentaltochildren,includingpsychologicalcontrol,pressure,coercion,orintrusion.11Itisimportanttounderstandhowparentalauthoritymaybeexercisedforapositive,ratherthannegativeend,especiallywithadolescentswhowanttohavetheirfreedomandmayrespondtocontrolwithpsychologicalreactance. In2015,VanPetegemandcolleaguesdidastudyonhowparentingstylesimpactteenagerebelliousness.Over200teenageadolescentsweregivenhypotheticalvignettesinwhichparentsrequestedthemtostudyharder.11Thisrequestwasframedeitherinacontrolling,neutral,orautonomy-supportivestyle.Resultshighlightedthatwhenrequestswereaskedinacontrollingmanner,teenagersexpressedmorefrustration,pressure,andreactance.Consequently,theyactedinamanneroppositetowhatwasaskedanddidnotstudy.11Inadditiontothis,theyalsotestedfortraitreactance,andfoundthatteenagerswhoweremorereactanceorientedweremorelikelytointerpretparentalrequestsasthreatstotheirfreedomregardlessofhowtherequestswereconveyed.Aswouldbeexpected,theyweremorelikelytoactinanoppositionalmanner.11 Theseresultswereconsistentacrosstheadolescentages,gender,community,andotherparentaldimensions.Thismeansthat,moreoftenthannot,controllingparentalstylesresultinpressureonteenagers.Furthermore,reactancewasalsofoundtobeassociatedwithexternalizingbehaviours,likeattentionalproblems,aggression,hyperactivity,aswellasinternalizingbehaviours,likesocialwithdrawal,anxiety,anddepression.12Astylemoreconducivetohealthychilddevelopmentisanautonomy-supportivestyle,wherechildrenaremoreinvolvedinmakingdecisionsforthemselves,whilesimultaneouslyhavingthesupportoftheparent.13 TherapyandPsychologicalReactance Psychologicalreactancehasbeenstudiedinthecontextofclinicalpsychologyforyears.In1973,DevineandFerlandconductedoneofthefirststudiesoneffectsofvoiceontreatment,where.Theyrecruitedstudentswhowereextremelyafraidofsnakes.Theydividedthemintothreegroups,eachofwhichwouldreceivetherapeutictreatmentfortheircripplingfear.1Two-thirdsofthestudentswereshownvideosoffourdifferenttypesoftherapyandwereaskedtomarktheirpreferenceforeachtype.Halfofthisgroupwasassignedtothetherapytheymostpreferred,whereastheotherhalfwasassignedtotheonetheyleastpreferred.Theremainingthirdwasrandomlyassignedtoatherapy.1 Afterreceivingtwo1-hoursessionsoftherapy,eachparticipant’sleveloffearwasassessed.Thosewhowereassignedtotheirpreferredtherapyshowedsubstantialimprovementwiththeirsnakefearcomparedtothosewhowererandomlyassignedorassignedtotheirleastpreferredone.Thismaybebecauseeveryonewasfirstaskedtostatetheirpreference,thoseintheleast-preferredconditionmayhaveexperiencedathreattotheirfreedomofchoice,leadingtopotentialfrustrationandreactancetotherapy.1Thesefindingsemphasizetheimpactofprovidingclientswiththefreedomtochoosetheirformoftherapy.However,despitetheseresultsreplicatedinotherstudies,theyshouldbetakenwithagrainofsaltduetolackofproperbaselinemeasurespresentinmoststudies. RelatedTDLContent TDLBrief:ListeningToExperts Despitesomuchcredibleresearch,approvalfromseveral governments,andtheWorldHealthOrganization’sblessing,whyarepeoplestillhesitantaboutCOVID-19vaccines?Whyhaveseveralanti-vaccinemovementscomeabout?Thisarticlemayoffersomeinsightsabouthowreactancemanifestsitself,evenifitmaybeharmfultoindividualsandsocietyatlarge. Whydowelookforconsistencyinourbeliefs? Thisarticleprovidesadeeperlookintocognitivedissonance,thetheorythatinspiredpsychologicalreactance.Readontolearnmoreabouttherootsofreactancetheory. Sources Brehm,S.S.,&Brehm,J.W.(2013).Psychologicalreactance:Atheoryoffreedomandcontrol.AcademicPress. Rosenberg,B.D.,&Siegel,J.T.(2018).A50-yearreviewofpsychologicalreactancetheory:Donotreadthisarticle.MotivationScience,4(4),281. Cherry,K.(2020).CognitiveDissonanceandWaystoResolveIt.VerywellMind.https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-cognitive-dissonance-2795012. SocietyforPersonalityandSocialPsychology.(n.d.).JackW.Brehm.SPSP.https://spsp.org/awards/heritage-wall-of-fame/brehm. MacDonald,G.,Nail,P.R.,&Harper,J.R.(2011).Dopeopleusereversepsychology?Anexplorationofstrategicself-anticonformity.SocialInfluence,6(1),1-14. Quick,B.L.,Kam,J.A.,Morgan,S.E.,MonteroLiberona,C.A.,&Smith,R.A.(2015).Prospecttheory,discreteemotions,andfreedomthreats:Anextensionofpsychologicalreactancetheory.JournalofCommunication,65(1),40-61. Reynolds-Tylus,T.(2019).Psychologicalreactanceandpersuasivehealthcommunication:areviewoftheliterature.FrontiersinCommunication,4,56. Lessne,G.,&Venkatesan,M.(1989).Reactancetheoryinconsumerresearch:thepast,presentandfuture.ACRNorthAmericanAdvances. Dowd,J.J.(1975).DistributiveJusticeandPsychologicalReactance:AConvergenceofHomansandBrehm.PacificSociologicalReview,18(4),421-441. Brehm,J.W.(1989).Psychologicalreactance:Theoryandapplications.ACRNorthAmericanAdvances. VanPetegem,S.,Soenens,B.,Vansteenkiste,M.,&Beyers,W.(2015).Rebelswithacause?Adolescentdefiancefromtheperspectiveofreactancetheoryandself‐determinationtheory.ChildDevelopment,86(3),903-918. Willner,C.J.,Gatzke-Kopp,L.M.,&Bray,B.C.(2016).Thedynamicsofinternalizingandexternalizingcomorbidityacrosstheearlyschoolyears.Developmentandpsychopathology,28(4pt1),1033-1052. Shenfield,T.(2019,September19).WhatisAutonomySupportiveParentingandHowtoPracticeit.ChildPsychologyResourcesbyDr.TaliShenfield.https://www.psy-ed.com/wpblog/autonomy-supportive-parenting/. Prospecttheory.BehavioralEconomics.com|TheBEHub.(2020,October14).https://www.behavioraleconomics.com/resources/mini-encyclopedia-of-be/prospect-theory/. ReadNext ReferenceGuid Risk-SeekingBehavior ReferenceGuid Rumination ReferenceGuid GestaltPsychology ReferenceGuid Self-esteem SeeAll Iconarrowrightturquoisecolor Eagertolearnabouthowbehavioralsciencecanhelpyourorganization? Getnewbehavioralscienceinsightsinyourinboxeverymonth. 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