Research - Wikipedia

Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge". It involves the collection, organization and analysis of ... Research FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia Jumptonavigation Jumptosearch Systematicstudyundertakentoincreaseknowledge Thisarticleisaboutthesearchforknowledge.Forotheruses,seeResearch(disambiguation). "Researched"redirectshere.Fortheorganisation,seeResearchED. "Researcher"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeResearcher(disambiguation). PartofaseriesonResearch Listofacademicfields Appliedsciences R&D Formalsciences Humanities Naturalsciences Professions Socialsciences Researchdesign Researchproposal Researchquestion Writing Argument Referencing Philosophy Constructivism Empiricism Positivism/Antipositivism/Postpositivism Realism Criticalrealism Subtlerealism Researchstrategy Interdisciplinary Multimethodology Qualitative Quantitative Methodology Actionresearch Artmethodology Criticaltheory Feminism Groundedtheory Hermeneutics Historiography Narrativeinquiry Phenomenology Pragmatism Scientificmethod Methods Casestudy Contentanalysis Descriptivestatistics Discourseanalysis Ethnography Experiment Fieldexperiment Socialexperiment Quasi-experiment Fieldresearch Historicalmethod Inferentialstatistics Interviews Mapping Culturalmapping Phenomenography Secondaryresearch Bibliometrics Literaturereview Meta-analysis Scopingreview Systematicreview Scientificmodelling Simulation Survey Toolsandsoftware Argumenttechnology Geographicinformationsystemsoftware Libraryandinformationsciencesoftware Bibliometrics Referencemanagement Sciencesoftware Qualitativedataanalysis Simulation Statistics Philosophyportalvte Communication PortalHistory Generalaspects Communicationtheory Information Semiotics Language Logic Sociology Fields Discourseanalysis Linguistics Masscommunication Organizationalcommunication Pragmatics Semiotics Sociolinguistics Disciplines Publicspeaking Discourse Culture Argumentation Persuasion Research Rhetoric Categories Outline vte Basreliefsculpture"Researchholdingthetorchofknowledge"(1896)byOlinLeviWarner.LibraryofCongress,ThomasJeffersonBuilding,inWashington,D.C. Researchis"creativeandsystematicworkundertakentoincreasethestockofknowledge".[1]Itinvolvesthecollection,organizationandanalysisofinformationtoincreaseunderstandingofatopicorissue.Aresearchprojectmaybeanexpansiononpastworkinthefield.Totestthevalidityofinstruments,procedures,orexperiments,researchmayreplicateelementsofpriorprojectsortheprojectasawhole. Theprimarypurposesofbasicresearch(asopposedtoappliedresearch)aredocumentation,discovery,interpretation,andtheresearchanddevelopment(R&D)ofmethodsandsystemsfortheadvancementofhumanknowledge.Approachestoresearchdependonepistemologies,whichvaryconsiderablybothwithinandbetweenhumanitiesandsciences.Thereareseveralformsofresearch:scientific,humanities,artistic,economic,social,business,marketing,practitionerresearch,life,technological,etc.Thescientificstudyofresearchpracticesisknownasmeta-research. Contents 1Etymology 2Definitions 3Formsofresearch 3.1Originalresearch 3.2Scientificresearch 3.3Researchinthehumanities 3.4Artisticresearch 3.5Historicalresearch 3.6Documentaryresearch 4Stepsinconductingresearch 5Researchmethods 6Researchethics 7Problemsinresearch 7.1Meta-research 7.2Methodsofresearch 7.3Bias 7.4Generalizability 7.5Publicationpeerreview 7.6Influenceoftheopen-accessmovement 7.7Researchteams 7.8Futureperspectives 7.9Neo-colonialapproaches 8Professionalisation 8.1InRussia 9Publishing 10Researchfunding 11Seealso 12References 13Furtherreading 14Externallinks Etymology[edit] Aristotle,(384–322BC),oneoftheearlyfiguresinthedevelopmentofthescientificmethod[2] ThewordresearchisderivedfromtheMiddleFrench"recherche",whichmeans"togoaboutseeking",thetermitselfbeingderivedfromtheOldFrenchterm"recerchier"acompoundwordfrom"re-"+"cerchier",or"sercher",meaning'search'.[3]Theearliestrecordeduseofthetermwasin1577.[3] Definitions[edit] Researchhasbeendefinedinanumberofdifferentways,andwhiletherearesimilarities,theredoesnotappeartobeasingle,all-encompassingdefinitionthatisembracedbyallwhoengageinit. OnedefinitionofresearchisusedbytheOECD,"Anycreativesystematicactivityundertakeninordertoincreasethestockofknowledge,includingknowledgeofman,cultureandsociety,andtheuseofthisknowledgetodevisenewapplications."[4] AnotherdefinitionofresearchisgivenbyJohnW.Creswell,whostatesthat"researchisaprocessofstepsusedtocollectandanalyzeinformationtoincreaseourunderstandingofatopicorissue".Itconsistsofthreesteps:poseaquestion,collectdatatoanswerthequestion,andpresentananswertothequestion.[5] TheMerriam-WebsterOnlineDictionarydefinesresearchinmoredetailas"studiousinquiryorexamination;especially :investigationorexperimentationaimedatthediscoveryandinterpretationoffacts,revisionofacceptedtheoriesorlawsinthelightofnewfacts,orpracticalapplicationofsuchneworrevisedtheoriesorlaws"[3] Formsofresearch[edit] "Originalresearch"redirectshere.FortheWikipediaprohibitionagainstuser-generated,unpublishedresearch,seeWikipedia:Nooriginalresearch. Originalresearch[edit] Originalresearch,alsocalledprimaryresearch,isresearchthatisnotexclusivelybasedonasummary,review,orsynthesisofearlierpublicationsonthesubjectofresearch.Thismaterialisofaprimary-sourcecharacter.Thepurposeoftheoriginalresearchistoproducenewknowledge,ratherthantopresenttheexistingknowledgeinanewform(e.g.,summarizedorclassified).[6][7]Originalresearchcanbeinvariousforms,dependingonthedisciplineitpertainsto.Inexperimentalwork,ittypicallyinvolvesdirectorindirectobservationoftheresearchedsubject(s),e.g.,inthelaboratoryorinthefield,documentsthemethodology,results,andconclusionsofanexperimentorsetofexperiments,oroffersanovelinterpretationofpreviousresults.Inanalyticalwork,therearetypicallysomenew(forexample)mathematicalresultsproduced,oranewwayofapproachinganexistingproblem.Insomesubjectswhichdonottypicallycarryoutexperimentationoranalysisofthiskind,theoriginalityisintheparticularwayexistingunderstandingischangedorre-interpretedbasedontheoutcomeoftheworkoftheresearcher.[8] Thedegreeoforiginalityoftheresearchisamongmajorcriteriaforarticlestobepublishedinacademicjournalsandusuallyestablishedbymeansofpeerreview.[9]Graduatestudentsarecommonlyrequiredtoperformoriginalresearchaspartofadissertation.[10] Scientificresearch[edit] Mainarticle:Scientificmethod Thisarticleneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingcitationstoreliablesources.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.Findsources: "Research" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(October2021)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) PrimaryscientificresearchbeingcarriedoutattheMicroscopyLaboratoryoftheIdahoNationalLaboratory ScientificresearchequipmentatMIT GermanmaritimeresearchvesselSonne Scientificresearchisasystematicwayofgatheringdataandharnessingcuriosity.Thisresearchprovidesscientificinformationandtheoriesfortheexplanationofthenatureandthepropertiesoftheworld.Itmakespracticalapplicationspossible.Scientificresearchisfundedbypublicauthorities,bycharitableorganizationsandbyprivategroups,includingmanycompanies.Scientificresearchcanbesubdividedintodifferentclassificationsaccordingtotheiracademicandapplicationdisciplines.Scientificresearchisawidelyusedcriterionforjudgingthestandingofanacademicinstitution,butsomearguethatsuchisaninaccurateassessmentoftheinstitution,becausethequalityofresearchdoesnottellaboutthequalityofteaching(thesedonotnecessarilycorrelate).[11] Generally,researchisunderstoodtofollowacertainstructuralprocess.Thoughstepordermayvarydependingonthesubjectmatterandresearcher,thefollowingstepsareusuallypartofmostformalresearch,bothbasicandapplied: Observationsandformationofthetopic:Consistsofthesubjectareaofone'sinterestandfollowingthatsubjectareatoconductsubject-relatedresearch.Thesubjectareashouldnotberandomlychosensinceitrequiresreadingavastamountofliteratureonthetopictodeterminethegapintheliteraturetheresearcherintendstonarrow.Akeeninterestinthechosensubjectareaisadvisable.Theresearchwillhavetobejustifiedbylinkingitsimportancetoalreadyexistingknowledgeaboutthetopic. Hypothesis:Atestablepredictionwhichdesignatestherelationshipbetweentwoormorevariables. Conceptualdefinition:Descriptionofaconceptbyrelatingittootherconcepts. Operationaldefinition:Detailsinregardstodefiningthevariablesandhowtheywillbemeasured/assessedinthestudy. Gatheringofdata:Consistsofidentifyingapopulationandselectingsamples,gatheringinformationfromoraboutthesesamplesbyusingspecificresearchinstruments.Theinstrumentsusedfordatacollectionmustbevalidandreliable. Analysisofdata:Involvesbreakingdowntheindividualpiecesofdatatodrawconclusionsaboutit. DataInterpretation:Thiscanberepresentedthroughtables,figures,andpictures,andthendescribedinwords. Test,revisingofhypothesis Conclusion,reiterationifnecessary Acommonmisconceptionisthatahypothesiswillbeproven(see,rather,nullhypothesis).Generally,ahypothesisisusedtomakepredictionsthatcanbetestedbyobservingtheoutcomeofanexperiment.Iftheoutcomeisinconsistentwiththehypothesis,thenthehypothesisisrejected(seefalsifiability).However,iftheoutcomeisconsistentwiththehypothesis,theexperimentissaidtosupportthehypothesis.Thiscarefullanguageisusedbecauseresearchersrecognizethatalternativehypothesesmayalsobeconsistentwiththeobservations.Inthissense,ahypothesiscanneverbeproven,butratheronlysupportedbysurvivingroundsofscientifictestingand,eventually,becomingwidelythoughtofastrue. Ausefulhypothesisallowspredictionandwithintheaccuracyofobservationofthetime,thepredictionwillbeverified.Astheaccuracyofobservationimproveswithtime,thehypothesismaynolongerprovideanaccurateprediction.Inthiscase,anewhypothesiswillarisetochallengetheold,andtotheextentthatthenewhypothesismakesmoreaccuratepredictionsthantheold,thenewwillsupplantit.Researcherscanalsouseanullhypothesis,whichstatesnorelationshipordifferencebetweentheindependentordependentvariables. Researchinthehumanities[edit] Researchinthehumanitiesinvolvesdifferentmethodssuchasforexamplehermeneuticsandsemiotics.Humanitiesscholarsusuallydonotsearchfortheultimatecorrectanswertoaquestion,butinstead,exploretheissuesanddetailsthatsurroundit.Contextisalwaysimportant,andcontextcanbesocial,historical,political,cultural,orethnic.Anexampleofresearchinthehumanitiesishistoricalresearch,whichisembodiedinhistoricalmethod.Historiansuseprimarysourcesandotherevidencetosystematicallyinvestigateatopic,andthentowritehistoriesintheformofaccountsofthepast.Otherstudiesaimtomerelyexaminetheoccurrenceofbehavioursinsocietiesandcommunities,withoutparticularlylookingforreasonsormotivationstoexplainthese.Thesestudiesmaybequalitativeorquantitative,andcanuseavarietyofapproaches,suchasqueertheoryorfeministtheory.[12] Artisticresearch[edit] Artisticresearch,alsoseenas'practice-basedresearch',cantakeformwhencreativeworksareconsideredboththeresearchandtheobjectofresearchitself.Itisthedebatablebodyofthoughtwhichoffersanalternativetopurelyscientificmethodsinresearchinitssearchforknowledgeandtruth. Thecontroversialtrendofartisticteachingbecomingmoreacademics-orientedisleadingtoartisticresearchbeingacceptedastheprimarymodeofenquiryinartasinthecaseofotherdisciplines.[13]Oneofthecharacteristicsofartisticresearchisthatitmustacceptsubjectivityasopposedtotheclassicalscientificmethods.Assuch,itissimilartothesocialsciencesinusingqualitativeresearchandintersubjectivityastoolstoapplymeasurementandcriticalanalysis.[14] ArtisticresearchhasbeendefinedbytheSchoolofDanceandCircus(DansochCirkushögskolan,DOCH),Stockholminthefollowingmanner–"Artisticresearchistoinvestigateandtestwiththepurposeofgainingknowledgewithinandforourartisticdisciplines.Itisbasedonartisticpractices,methods,andcriticality.Throughpresenteddocumentation,theinsightsgainedshallbeplacedinacontext."[15]Artisticresearchaimstoenhanceknowledgeandunderstandingwithpresentationofthearts.[16]AsimplerunderstandingbyJulianKleindefinesartisticresearchasanykindofresearchemployingtheartisticmodeofperception.[17]Forasurveyofthecentralproblematicsoftoday'sartisticresearch,seeGiacoSchiesser.[18] AccordingtoartistHakanTopal,inartisticresearch,"perhapsmoresothanotherdisciplines,intuitionisutilizedasamethodtoidentifyawiderangeofnewandunexpectedproductivemodalities".[19]Mostwriters,whetheroffictionornon-fictionbooks,alsohavetodoresearchtosupporttheircreativework.Thismaybefactual,historical,orbackgroundresearch.Backgroundresearchcouldinclude,forexample,geographicalorproceduralresearch.[20] TheSocietyforArtisticResearch(SAR)publishesthetriannualJournalforArtisticResearch(JAR),[21][22]aninternational,online,openaccess,andpeer-reviewedjournalfortheidentification,publication,anddisseminationofartisticresearchanditsmethodologies,fromallartsdisciplinesanditrunstheResearchCatalogue(RC),[23][24][25]asearchable,documentarydatabaseofartisticresearch,towhichanyonecancontribute. PatriciaLeavyaddresseseightarts-basedresearch(ABR)genres:narrativeinquiry,fiction-basedresearch,poetry,music,dance,theatre,film,andvisualart.[26] In2016,theEuropeanLeagueofInstitutesoftheArtslaunchedTheFlorencePrinciples'ontheDoctorateintheArts.[27]TheFlorencePrinciplesrelatingtotheSalzburgPrinciplesandtheSalzburgRecommendationsoftheEuropeanUniversityAssociationnamesevenpointsofattentiontospecifytheDoctorate/PhDintheArtscomparedtoascientificdoctorate/PhD.TheFlorencePrincipleshavebeenendorsedandaresupportedalsobyAEC,CILECT,CUMULUSandSAR. Historicalresearch[edit] Mainarticle:Historicalmethod GermanhistorianLeopoldvonRanke(1795–1886),consideredtobeoneofthefoundersofmodernsource-basedhistory Thehistoricalmethodcomprisesthetechniquesandguidelinesbywhichhistoriansusehistoricalsourcesandotherevidencetoresearchandthentowritehistory.Therearevarioushistoryguidelinesthatarecommonlyusedbyhistoriansintheirwork,undertheheadingsofexternalcriticism,internalcriticism,andsynthesis.Thisincludeslowercriticismandsensualcriticism.Thoughitemsmayvarydependingonthesubjectmatterandresearcher,thefollowingconceptsarepartofmostformalhistoricalresearch:[28] Identificationoforigindate Evidenceoflocalization Recognitionofauthorship Analysisofdata Identificationofintegrity Attributionofcredibility Documentaryresearch[edit] Mainarticle:Documentaryresearch Stepsinconductingresearch[edit] Researchdesignandevidence Researchcycle Researchisoftenconductedusingthehourglassmodelstructureofresearch.[29]Thehourglassmodelstartswithabroadspectrumforresearch,focusinginontherequiredinformationthroughthemethodoftheproject(liketheneckofthehourglass),thenexpandstheresearchintheformofdiscussionandresults.Themajorstepsinconductingresearchare:[30] Identificationofresearchproblem Literaturereview Specifyingthepurposeofresearch Determiningspecificresearchquestions Specificationofaconceptualframework,sometimesincludingasetofhypotheses[31] Choiceofamethodology(fordatacollection) Datacollection Verifyingdata Analyzingandinterpretingthedata Reportingandevaluatingresearch Communicatingtheresearchfindingsand,possibly,recommendations Thestepsgenerallyrepresenttheoverallprocess;however,theyshouldbeviewedasanever-changingiterativeprocessratherthanafixedsetofsteps.[32]Mostresearchbeginswithageneralstatementoftheproblem,orrather,thepurposeforengaginginthestudy.[33]Theliteraturereviewidentifiesflawsorholesinpreviousresearchwhichprovidesjustificationforthestudy.Often,aliteraturereviewisconductedinagivensubjectareabeforearesearchquestionisidentified.Agapinthecurrentliterature,asidentifiedbyaresearcher,thenengendersaresearchquestion.Theresearchquestionmaybeparalleltothehypothesis.Thehypothesisisthesuppositiontobetested.Theresearcher(s)collectsdatatotestthehypothesis.Theresearcher(s)thenanalyzesandinterpretsthedataviaavarietyofstatisticalmethods,engaginginwhatisknownasempiricalresearch.Theresultsofthedataanalysisinrejectingorfailingtorejectthenullhypothesisarethenreportedandevaluated.Attheend,theresearchermaydiscussavenuesforfurtherresearch.However,someresearchersadvocateforthereverseapproach:startingwitharticulatingfindingsanddiscussionofthem,moving"up"toidentificationofaresearchproblemthatemergesinthefindingsandliteraturereview.Thereverseapproachisjustifiedbythetransactionalnatureoftheresearchendeavorwhereresearchinquiry,researchquestions,researchmethod,relevantresearchliterature,andsoonarenotfullyknownuntilthefindingshavefullyemergedandbeeninterpreted. RudolphRummelsays,"...noresearchershouldacceptanyoneortwotestsasdefinitive.Itisonlywhenarangeoftestsareconsistentovermanykindsofdata,researchers,andmethodscanonehaveconfidenceintheresults."[34] PlatoinMenotalksaboutaninherentdifficulty,ifnotaparadox,ofdoingresearchthatcanbeparaphrasedinthefollowingway,"Ifyouknowwhatyou'researchingfor,whydoyousearchforit?![i.e.,youhavealreadyfoundit]Ifyoudon'tknowwhatyou'researchingfor,whatareyousearchingfor?!"[35] Researchmethods[edit] TheresearchroomattheNewYorkPublicLibrary,anexampleofsecondaryresearchinprogress MauriceHilleman,thepreeminentvaccinologistofthe20thcentury,iscreditedwithsavingmorelivesthananyotherscientistinthattime.[36] Thegoaloftheresearchprocessistoproducenewknowledgeordeepenunderstandingofatopicorissue.Thisprocesstakesthreemainforms(although,aspreviouslydiscussed,theboundariesbetweenthemmaybeobscure): Exploratoryresearch,whichhelpstoidentifyanddefineaproblemorquestion. Constructiveresearch,whichteststheoriesandproposessolutionstoaproblemorquestion. Empiricalresearch,whichteststhefeasibilityofasolutionusingempiricalevidence. Therearetwomajortypesofempiricalresearchdesign:qualitativeresearchandquantitativeresearch.Researcherschoosequalitativeorquantitativemethodsaccordingtothenatureoftheresearchtopictheywanttoinvestigateandtheresearchquestionstheyaimtoanswer: Qualitativeresearch Thisinvolvesunderstandinghumanbehaviorandthereasonsthatgovernsuchbehavior,byaskingabroadquestion,collectingdataintheformofwords,images,videoetc.thatisanalyzed,andsearchingforthemes.Thistypeofresearchaimstoinvestigateaquestionwithoutattemptingtoquantifiablymeasurevariablesorlooktopotentialrelationshipsbetweenvariables.Itisviewedasmorerestrictiveintestinghypothesesbecauseitcanbeexpensiveandtime-consumingandtypicallylimitedtoasinglesetofresearchsubjects.[citationneeded]Qualitativeresearchisoftenusedasamethodofexploratoryresearchasabasisforlaterquantitativeresearchhypotheses.[citationneeded]Qualitativeresearchislinkedwiththephilosophicalandtheoreticalstanceofsocialconstructionism. Socialmediapostsareusedforqualitativeresearch.[37] Quantitativeresearch Thisinvolvessystematicempiricalinvestigationofquantitativepropertiesandphenomenaandtheirrelationships,byaskinganarrowquestionandcollectingnumericaldatatoanalyzeitutilizingstatisticalmethods.Thequantitativeresearchdesignsareexperimental,correlational,andsurvey(ordescriptive).[38]Statisticsderivedfromquantitativeresearchcanbeusedtoestablishtheexistenceofassociativeorcausalrelationshipsbetweenvariables.Quantitativeresearchislinkedwiththephilosophicalandtheoreticalstanceofpositivism. Thequantitativedatacollectionmethodsrelyonrandomsamplingandstructureddatacollectioninstrumentsthatfitdiverseexperiencesintopredeterminedresponsecategories.[citationneeded]Thesemethodsproduceresultsthatcanbesummarized,compared,andgeneralizedtolargerpopulationsifthedataarecollectedusingpropersamplinganddatacollectionstrategies.[39]Quantitativeresearchisconcernedwithtestinghypothesesderivedfromtheoryorbeingabletoestimatethesizeofaphenomenonofinterest.[39] Iftheresearchquestionisaboutpeople,participantsmayberandomlyassignedtodifferenttreatments(thisistheonlywaythataquantitativestudycanbeconsideredatrueexperiment).[citationneeded]Ifthisisnotfeasible,theresearchermaycollectdataonparticipantandsituationalcharacteristicstostatisticallycontrolfortheirinfluenceonthedependent,oroutcome,variable.Iftheintentistogeneralizefromtheresearchparticipantstoalargerpopulation,theresearcherwillemployprobabilitysamplingtoselectparticipants.[40] Ineitherqualitativeorquantitativeresearch,theresearcher(s)maycollectprimaryorsecondarydata.[39]Primarydataisdatacollectedspecificallyfortheresearch,suchasthroughinterviewsorquestionnaires.Secondarydataisdatathatalreadyexists,suchascensusdata,whichcanbere-usedfortheresearch.Itisgoodethicalresearchpracticetousesecondarydatawhereverpossible.[41] Mixed-methodresearch,i.e.researchthatincludesqualitativeandquantitativeelements,usingbothprimaryandsecondarydata,isbecomingmorecommon.[42]Thismethodhasbenefitsthatusingonemethodalonecannotoffer.Forexample,aresearchermaychoosetoconductaqualitativestudyandfollowitupwithaquantitativestudytogainadditionalinsights.[43] Bigdatahasbroughtbigimpactsonresearchmethodssothatnowmanyresearchersdonotputmucheffortintodatacollection;furthermore,methodstoanalyzeeasilyavailablehugeamountsofdatahavealsobeendeveloped. TypesofResearchMethod 1.ObservatoryResearchMethod 2.CorrelationResearchMethod[44] Switchingtopics Therehavebeenindicationsthatduringthelastdecadesscientistshaveswitchedbetweenscientifictopicsmorefrequently.[45] Non-empiricalresearch Non-empirical(theoretical)researchisanapproachthatinvolvesthedevelopmentoftheoryasopposedtousingobservationandexperimentation.Assuch,non-empiricalresearchseekssolutionstoproblemsusingexistingknowledgeasitssource.This,however,doesnotmeanthatnewideasandinnovationscannotbefoundwithinthepoolofexistingandestablishedknowledge.Non-empiricalresearchisnotanabsolutealternativetoempiricalresearchbecausetheymaybeusedtogethertostrengthenaresearchapproach.Neitheroneislesseffectivethantheothersincetheyhavetheirparticularpurposeinscience.Typicallyempiricalresearchproducesobservationsthatneedtobeexplained;thentheoreticalresearchtriestoexplainthem,andinsodoinggeneratesempiricallytestablehypotheses;thesehypothesesarethentestedempirically,givingmoreobservationsthatmayneedfurtherexplanation;andsoon.SeeScientificmethod. Asimpleexampleofanon-empiricaltaskistheprototypingofanewdrugusingadifferentiatedapplicationofexistingknowledge;anotheristhedevelopmentofabusinessprocessintheformofaflowchartandtextswherealltheingredientsarefromestablishedknowledge.Muchofcosmologicalresearchistheoreticalinnature.Mathematicsresearchdoesnotrelyonexternallyavailabledata;rather,itseekstoprovetheoremsaboutmathematicalobjects. Researchethics[edit] Researchethicsisconcernedwiththemoralissuesthatariseduringorasaresultofresearchactivities,aswellastheethicalconductofresearchers.Historically,therevelationofscandalssuchasNazihumanexperimentationandtheTuskegeesyphilisexperimentledtotherealisationthatclearmeasuresareneededfortheethicalgovernanceofresearchtoensurethatpeople,animalsandenvironmentsarenotundulyharmedinresearch.Themanagementofresearchethicsisinconsistentacrosscountriesandthereisnouniversallyacceptedapproachtohowitshouldbeaddressed.[46][47][48]Informedconsentisakeyconceptinresearchethics. Whenmakingethicaldecisions,wemaybeguidedbydifferentthingsandphilosopherscommonlydistinguishbetweenapproacheslikedeontology,consequentialism,virtueethicsandvalue(ethics).Regardlessofapproach,theapplicationofethicaltheorytospecificcontroversialtopicsisknownasappliedethicsandresearchethicscanbeviewedasaformofappliedethicsbecauseethicaltheoryisappliedinreal-worldresearchscenarios. Ethicalissuesmayariseinthedesignandimplementationofresearchinvolvinghumanexperimentationoranimalexperimentation.Theremayalsobeconsequencesfortheenvironment,forsocietyorforfuturegenerationsthatneedtobeconsidered.Researchethicsismostdevelopedasaconceptinmedicalresearch,themostnotableCodebeingthe1964DeclarationofHelsinki.Researchinotherfieldssuchassocialsciences,informationtechnology,biotechnology,orengineeringmaygeneratedifferenttypesofethicalconcernstothoseinmedicalresearch.[46][47][49][50][51][52] IncountriessuchasCanada,mandatoryresearchethicstrainingisrequiredforstudents,professorsandotherswhoworkinresearch.[53][54] Nowadays,researchethicsiscommonlydistinguishedfrommattersofresearchintegritythatincludesissuessuchasscientificmisconduct(e.g.fraud,fabricationofdataorplagiarism). Seealso:Medicalethics Problemsinresearch[edit] Meta-research[edit] Mainarticle:Meta-research Meta-researchisthestudyofresearchthroughtheuseofresearchmethods.Alsoknownas"researchonresearch",itaimstoreducewasteandincreasethequalityofresearchinallfields.Meta-researchconcernsitselfwiththedetectionofbias,methodologicalflaws,andothererrorsandinefficiencies.Amongthefindingofmeta-researchisalowratesofreproducibilityacrossalargenumberoffields.Thiswidespreaddifficultyinreproducingresearchhasbeentermedthe"replicationcrisis."[55] Methodsofresearch[edit] Inmanydisciplines,Westernmethodsofconductingresearcharepredominant.[56]ResearchersareoverwhelminglytaughtWesternmethodsofdatacollectionandstudy.Theincreasingparticipationofindigenouspeoplesasresearchershasbroughtincreasedattentiontothescientificlacunainculturally-sensitivemethodsofdatacollection.[57]Westernmethodsofdatacollectionmaynotbethemostaccurateorrelevantforresearchonnon-Westernsocieties.Forexample,"HuaOranga"wascreatedasacriterionforpsychologicalevaluationinMāoripopulations,andisbasedondimensionsofmentalhealthimportanttotheMāoripeople–"tahawairua(thespiritualdimension),tahahinengaro(thementaldimension),tahatinana(thephysicaldimension),andtahawhanau(thefamilydimension)".[58] Bias[edit] Researchisoftenbiasedinthelanguagesthatarepreferred(linguicism)andthegeographiclocationswhereresearchoccurs. Peripheryscholarsfacethechallengesofexclusionandlinguicisminresearchandacademicpublication.AsthegreatmajorityofmainstreamacademicjournalsarewritteninEnglish,multilingualperipheryscholarsoftenmusttranslatetheirworktobeacceptedtoeliteWestern-dominatedjournals.[59]Multilingualscholars'influencesfromtheirnativecommunicativestylescanbeassumedtobeincompetenceinsteadofdifference.[60] Forcomparativepolitics,Westerncountriesareover-representedinsingle-countrystudies,withheavyemphasisonWesternEurope,Canada,Australia,andNewZealand.Since2000,LatinAmericancountrieshavebecomemorepopularinsingle-countrystudies.Incontrast,countriesinOceaniaandtheCaribbeanarethefocusofveryfewstudies.Patternsofgeographicbiasalsoshowarelationshipwithlinguicism:countrieswhoseofficiallanguagesareFrenchorArabicarefarlesslikelytobethefocusofsingle-countrystudiesthancountrieswithdifferentofficiallanguages.WithinAfrica,English-speakingcountriesaremorerepresentedthanothercountries.[61] Generalizability[edit] Seealso:Externalvalidity Generalizationistheprocessofmorebroadlyapplyingthevalidresultsofonestudy.[62]Studieswithanarrowscopecanresultinalackofgeneralizability,meaningthattheresultsmaynotbeapplicabletootherpopulationsorregions.Incomparativepolitics,thiscanresultfromusingasingle-countrystudy,ratherthanastudydesignthatusesdatafrommultiplecountries.Despitetheissueofgeneralizability,single-countrystudieshaveriseninprevalencesincethelate2000s.[61] Publicationpeerreview[edit] Thisarticleneedstobeupdated.Thereasongivenis:Thissubsection'sclaimsarepotentiallyoutdatedinthe"digitalage"giventhatnear-totalpenetrationofWebaccessamongscholarsworldwideenablesanyscholar[s]tosubmitpaperstoanyjournalanywhere.Pleasehelpupdatethisarticletoreflectrecenteventsornewlyavailableinformation.(May2017) Peerreviewisaformofself-regulationbyqualifiedmembersofaprofessionwithintherelevantfield.Peerreviewmethodsareemployedtomaintainstandardsofquality,improveperformance,andprovidecredibility.Inacademia,scholarlypeerreviewisoftenusedtodetermineanacademicpaper'ssuitabilityforpublication.Usually,thepeerreviewprocessinvolvesexpertsinthesamefieldwhoareconsultedbyeditorstogiveareviewofthescholarlyworksproducedbyacolleagueoftheirsfromanunbiasedandimpartialpointofview,andthisisusuallydonefreeofcharge.Thetraditionofpeerreviewsbeingdoneforfreehashoweverbroughtmanypitfallswhicharealsoindicativeofwhymostpeerreviewersdeclinemanyinvitationstoreview.[63]ItwasobservedthatpublicationsfromperipherycountriesrarelyrisetothesameelitestatusasthoseofNorthAmericaandEurope,becauselimitationsontheavailabilityofresourcesincludinghigh-qualitypaperandsophisticatedimage-renderingsoftwareandprintingtoolsrenderthesepublicationslessabletosatisfystandardscurrentlycarryingformalorinformalauthorityinthepublishingindustry.[60]Theselimitationsinturnresultintheunder-representationofscholarsfromperipherynationsamongthesetofpublicationsholdingprestigestatusrelativetothequantityandqualityofthosescholars'researchefforts,andthisunder-representationinturnresultsindisproportionatelyreducedacceptanceoftheresultsoftheireffortsascontributionstothebodyofknowledgeavailableworldwide. Influenceoftheopen-accessmovement[edit] Theopenaccessmovementassumesthatallinformationgenerallydeemedusefulshouldbefreeandbelongstoa"publicdomain",thatof"humanity".[64]ThisideagainedprevalenceasaresultofWesterncolonialhistoryandignoresalternativeconceptionsofknowledgecirculation.Forinstance,mostindigenouscommunitiesconsiderthataccesstocertaininformationpropertothegroupshouldbedeterminedbyrelationships.[64] ThereisallegedtobeadoublestandardintheWesternknowledgesystem.Ontheonehand,"digitalrightmanagement"usedtorestrictaccesstopersonalinformationonsocialnetworkingplatformsiscelebratedasaprotectionofprivacy,whilesimultaneouslywhensimilarfunctionsareusedbyculturalgroups(i.e.indigenouscommunities)thisisdenouncedas"accesscontrol"andreprehendedascensorship.[64] Researchteams[edit] Indicationsthatfresh(new)teamsareassociatedwithmoreoriginalandmoremultidisciplinaryscientificstudieshasbeenfoundbyAnZengetal.[65] Futureperspectives[edit] EventhoughWesterndominanceseemstobeprominentinresearch,somescholars,suchasSimonMarginson,arguefor"theneed[for]apluraluniversityworld".[66]MarginsonarguesthattheEastAsianConfucianmodelcouldtakeovertheWesternmodel. ThiscouldbeduetochangesinfundingforresearchbothintheEastandtheWest.Focussedonemphasizingeducationalachievement,EastAsiancultures,mainlyinChinaandSouthKorea,haveencouragedtheincreaseoffundingforresearchexpansion.[66]Incontrast,intheWesternacademicworld,notablyintheUnitedKingdomaswellasinsomestategovernmentsintheUnitedStates,fundingcutsforuniversityresearchhaveoccurred,whichsome[who?]saymayleadtothefuturedeclineofWesterndominanceinresearch. Neo-colonialapproaches[edit] ThissectionisanexcerptfromNeo-colonialscience.[edit] Neo-colonialresearchorneo-colonialscience,[67][68]frequentlydescribedashelicopterresearch,[67]parachutescience[69][70]orresearch,[71]parasiticresearch,[72][73]orsafaristudy,[74]iswhenresearchersfromwealthiercountriesgotoadevelopingcountry,collectinformation,travelbacktotheircountry,analyzethedataandsamples,andpublishtheresultswithnoorlittleinvolvementoflocalresearchers.A2003studybytheHungarianacademyofsciencesfoundthat70%ofarticlesinarandomsampleofpublicationsaboutleast-developedcountriesdidnotincludealocalresearchco-author.[68] Frequently,duringthiskindofresearch,thelocalcolleaguesmightbeusedtoprovidelogisticsbutarenotengagedfortheirexpertiseorgivencreditfortheirparticipationintheresearch.Scientificpublicationsresultingfromparachutesciencefrequentlyonlycontributetothecareerofthescientistsfromrichcountries,thuslimitingthedevelopmentoflocalsciencecapacity(suchasfundedresearchcenters)andthecareersoflocalscientists.[67]Thisformof"colonial"sciencehasreverberationsof19thcenturyscientificpracticesoftreatingnon-Westernparticipantsas"others"inordertoadvancecolonialism—andcriticscallfortheendoftheseextractivistpracticesinordertodecolonizeknowledge.[75][76] Thiskindofresearchapproachreducesthequalityofresearchbecauseinternationalresearchersmaynotasktherightquestionsordrawconnectionstolocalissues.[77]Theresultofthisapproachisthatlocalcommunitiesareunabletoleveragetheresearchtotheirownadvantage.[70]Ultimately,especiallyforfieldsdealingwithglobalissueslikeconservationbiologywhichrelyonlocalcommunitiestoimplementsolutions,neo-colonialsciencepreventsinstitutionalizationofthefindingsinlocalcommunitiesinordertoaddressissuesbeingstudiedbyscientists.[70][75] Professionalisation[edit] Theexamplesandperspectiveinthissectionmaynotrepresentaworldwideviewofthesubject.Youmayimprovethissection,discusstheissueonthetalkpage,orcreateanewsection,asappropriate.(January2014)(Learnhowandwhentoremovethistemplatemessage) Seealso:Academicranks,Academics,andScientists Furtherinformation:Researchfellow,Researchassociate,andResearchassistant Inseveralnationalandprivateacademicsystems,theprofessionalisationofresearchhasresultedinformaljobtitles. InRussia[edit] Inpresent-dayRussia,theformerSovietUnionandinsomepost-Sovietstatesthetermresearcher(Russian:Научныйсотрудник,nauchnysotrudnik)isbothagenerictermforapersonwhocarriedoutscientificresearch,aswellasajobpositionwithintheframeworksoftheUSSRAcademyofSciences,Sovietuniversities,andinotherresearch-orientedestablishments. Thefollowingranksareknown: JuniorResearcher(JuniorResearchAssociate) Researcher(ResearchAssociate) SeniorResearcher(SeniorResearchAssociate) LeadingResearcher(LeadingResearchAssociate)[78] ChiefResearcher(ChiefResearchAssociate) Publishing[edit] CoverofthefirstissueofNature,4November1869 Academicpublishingisasystemthatisnecessaryforacademicscholarstopeerreviewtheworkandmakeitavailableforawideraudience.Thesystemvarieswidelybyfieldandisalsoalwayschanging,ifoftenslowly.Mostacademicworkispublishedinjournalarticleorbookform.Thereisalsoalargebodyofresearchthatexistsineitherathesisordissertationform.Theseformsofresearchcanbefoundindatabasesexplicitlyforthesesanddissertations.Inpublishing,STMpublishingisanabbreviationforacademicpublicationsinscience,technology,andmedicine. Mostestablishedacademicfieldshavetheirownscientificjournalsandotheroutletsforpublication,thoughmanyacademicjournalsaresomewhatinterdisciplinary,andpublishworkfromseveraldistinctfieldsorsubfields.Thekindsofpublicationsthatareacceptedascontributionsofknowledgeorresearchvarygreatlybetweenfields,fromtheprinttotheelectronicformat.Astudysuggeststhatresearchersshouldnotgivegreatconsiderationtofindingsthatarenotreplicatedfrequently.[79]Ithasalsobeensuggestedthatallpublishedstudiesshouldbesubjectedtosomemeasureforassessingthevalidityorreliabilityofitsprocedurestopreventthepublicationofunprovenfindings.[80]Businessmodelsaredifferentintheelectronicenvironment.Sinceabouttheearly1990s,licensingofelectronicresources,particularlyjournals,hasbeenverycommon.Presently,amajortrend,particularlywithrespecttoscholarlyjournals,isopenaccess.[81]Therearetwomainformsofopenaccess:openaccesspublishing,inwhichthearticlesorthewholejournalisfreelyavailablefromthetimeofpublication,andself-archiving,wheretheauthormakesacopyoftheirownworkfreelyavailableontheweb. Researchfunding[edit] Seealso:Fundingofscience Thissectionneedsexpansionwith:fundingforresearchinthehumanitiesandotherareas. Presently,onlyscientificresearchisaddressed.Youcanhelpbyaddingtoit.(April2019) Mostfundingforscientificresearchcomesfromthreemajorsources:corporateresearchanddevelopmentdepartments;privatefoundations,forexample,theBillandMelindaGatesFoundation;andgovernmentresearchcouncilssuchastheNationalInstitutesofHealthintheUSA[82]andtheMedicalResearchCouncilintheUK.Thesearemanagedprimarilythroughuniversitiesandinsomecasesthroughmilitarycontractors.Manyseniorresearchers(suchasgroupleaders)spendasignificantamountoftheirtimeapplyingforgrantsforresearchfunds.Thesegrantsarenecessarynotonlyforresearcherstocarryouttheirresearchbutalsoasasourceofmerit.TheSocialPsychologyNetworkprovidesacomprehensivelistofU.S.Governmentandprivatefoundationfundingsources. Seealso[edit] Advertisingresearch EuropeanCharterforResearchers Fundingbias Internetresearch Listofcountriesbyresearchanddevelopmentspending Listofwordsendinginology Marketresearch Marketingresearch Openresearch Operationsresearch Participatoryactionresearch Psychologicalresearchmethods Researchintegrity Research-intensivecluster Researchproposal Researchuniversity Scholarlyresearch Secondaryresearch Socialresearch SocietyforArtisticResearch Timelineofthehistoryofthescientificmethod Undergraduateresearch References[edit] ^OECD(2015).FrascatiManual.TheMeasurementofScientific,TechnologicalandInnovationActivities.doi:10.1787/9789264239012-en.hdl:20.500.12749/13290.ISBN 978-9264238800. ^"TheOriginsofScienceArchived3March2003attheWaybackMachine".ScientificAmericanFrontiers. ^abc"Research".Merriam-Webster.com.Merriam-Webster,Inc.Retrieved20May2018. 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^abVos,Ashade."TheProblemof'ColonialScience'".ScientificAmerican.Retrieved24March2021. ^"TheTracesofColonialisminScience".ObservatoryofEducationalInnovation.Retrieved24March2021. ^Stefanoudis,ParisV.;Licuanan,WilfredoY.;Morrison,TiffanyH.;Talma,Sheena;Veitayaki,Joeli;Woodall,LucyC.(22February2021)."Turningthetideofparachutescience".CurrentBiology.31(4):R184–R185.doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.01.029.ISSN 0960-9822.PMID 33621503. ^"Ведущийнаучныйсотрудник:должностныеобязанности".www.aup.ru. ^HeinerEvanschitzky,CarstenBaumgarth,RaymondHubbardandJ.ScottArmstrong(2006)."ReplicationResearchinMarketingRevisited:ANoteonaDisturbingTrend"(PDF).Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on20June2010.Retrieved10January2012.{{citeweb}}:CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslist(link) ^J.ScottArmstrong&PeerSoelberg(1968)."OntheInterpretationofFactorAnalysis"(PDF).PsychologicalBulletin.70(5):361–364.doi:10.1037/h0026434.S2CID 25687243.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on21June2010.Retrieved11January2012. ^J.ScottArmstrong&RobertFildes(2006)."MonetaryIncentivesinMailSurveys"(PDF).InternationalJournalofForecasting.22(3):433–441.doi:10.1016/j.ijforecast.2006.04.007.S2CID 154398140.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on20June2010.Retrieved11January2012. ^"Home|RePORT".report.nih.gov. Furtherreading[edit] Groh,Arnold(2018).ResearchMethodsinIndigenousContexts.NewYork:Springer.ISBN 978-3-319-72774-5. Cohen,N.;Arieli,T.(2011)."Fieldresearchinconflictenvironments:Methodologicalchallengesandsnowballsampling".JournalofPeaceResearch.48(4):423–436.doi:10.1177/0022343311405698.S2CID 145328311. Soeters,Joseph;Shields,PatriciaandRietjens,Sebastiaan.2014.HandbookofResearchMethodsinMilitaryStudiesNewYork:Routledge. Talja,SannaandPamelaJ.Mckenzie(2007).Editor'sIntroduction:SpecialIssueonDiscursiveApproachestoInformationSeekinginContext,TheUniversityofChicagoPress. Externallinks[edit] WikiversityhaslearningresourcesaboutResearch LibraryresourcesaboutResearch Resourcesinyourlibrary Resourcesinotherlibraries ThedictionarydefinitionofresearchatWiktionary QuotationsrelatedtoResearchatWikiquote MediarelatedtoResearchatWikimediaCommons vteScienceandtechnologystudiesEconomics Economicsofscience Economicsofscientificknowledge History Historyandphilosophyofscience Historyofscience andtechnology Historyoftechnology Philosophy Anthropocene Antipositivism Empiricism Fuzzylogic Neo-Luddism Philosophyofscience Philosophyofsocialscience Philosophyoftechnology Positivism Postpositivism Religionandscience Scientism Socialconstructivism Socialepistemology Transhumanism Sociology Actor–networktheory Social constructionoftechnology shapingoftechnology Sociologyofknowledge scientific Sociologyofscientificignorance Sociologyofthehistoryofscience Sociotechnology Strongprogramme Sciencestudies Antiscience Bibliometrics Boundary-work Consilience Criticismofscience Demarcationproblem Doublehermeneutic Logology Mappingcontroversies Metascience Paradigmshift blackswanevents Pseudoscience Psychologyofscience Science citizen communication education normal Neo-colonial post-normal rhetoric wars Scientific community consensus controversy dissent enterprise literacy method misconduct priority skepticism Scientocracy Scientometrics Teamscience Traditionalknowledge ecological Unityofscience Womeninscience STEM Technologystudies Co-production Cyborganthropology Dematerialization Digitalanthropology Digitalmediauseandmentalhealth Earlyadopter Hypecycle Innovation diffusion disruptive linearmodel system user Leapfrogging Normalizationprocesstheory Reversesalient Skunkworksproject Sociotechnicalsystem Technicalchange Technocracy Technoscience feminist Technological change convergence determinism revolution transitions Technology andsociety criticismof dynamics theoriesof transfer Engineeringstudies Womeninengineering Financialtechnology Policy Academicfreedom Digitaldivide Evidence-basedpolicy Factor10 Fundingofscience Horizonscanning Sciencepolicy historyof scienceof Politicizationofscience Regulationofscience Researchethics Righttoscience Socio-scientificissues Technologyassessment Technologypolicy Transitionmanagement Portals Science Historyofscience Technology Category Associations Journals Scholars AuthoritycontrolNationallibraries France(data) Germany Israel UnitedStates Other HistoricalDictionaryofSwitzerland NationalArchives(US) Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Research&oldid=1072591909" Categories:ResearchMethodologyScientificmethodHiddencategories:WebarchivetemplatewaybacklinksPageswithmissingISBNsWikipediaarticlesneedingpagenumbercitationsfromJune2019CS1maint:multiplenames:authorslistArticleswithshortdescriptionShortdescriptionmatchesWikidataUsedmydatesfromSeptember2017ArticlesneedingadditionalreferencesfromOctober2021AllarticlesneedingadditionalreferencesAllarticleswithunsourcedstatementsArticleswithunsourcedstatementsfromDecember2012WikipediaarticlesinneedofupdatingfromMay2017AllWikipediaarticlesinneedofupdatingAllarticleswithspecificallymarkedweasel-wordedphrasesArticleswithspecificallymarkedweasel-wordedphrasesfromFebruary2017ArticleswithexcerptsArticleswithlimitedgeographicscopefromJanuary2014ArticlescontainingRussian-languagetextArticlestobeexpandedfromApril2019AllarticlestobeexpandedArticlesusingsmallmessageboxesCommonscategorylinkfromWikidataArticleswithBNFidentifiersArticleswithGNDidentifiersArticleswithJ9UidentifiersArticleswithLCCNidentifiersArticleswithHDSidentifiersArticleswithNARAidentifiers Navigationmenu Personaltools NotloggedinTalkContributionsCreateaccountLogin Namespaces ArticleTalk English expanded collapsed Views ReadEditViewhistory More expanded collapsed Search Navigation MainpageContentsCurrenteventsRandomarticleAboutWikipediaContactusDonate Contribute HelpLearntoeditCommunityportalRecentchangesUploadfile Tools WhatlinkshereRelatedchangesUploadfileSpecialpagesPermanentlinkPageinformationCitethispageWikidataitem Print/export DownloadasPDFPrintableversion Inotherprojects WikimediaCommonsWikiquoteWikiversity Languages العربيةAragonésঅসমীয়াAsturianuAvañe'ẽAzərbaycancaBamanankanবাংলাБеларускаяБеларуская(тарашкевіца)भोजपुरीБългарскиBosanskiCatalàČeštinaCorsuCymraegDanskDeutschEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFrançaisFurlanGaeilgeGalego客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî한국어हिन्दीHrvatskiBahasaIndonesiaᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitutÍslenskaItalianoעבריתಕನ್ನಡKiswahiliKreyòlayisyenKurdîLatinaLatviešuLëtzebuergeschLietuviųLingálaMagyarമലയാളംमराठीBahasaMelayuМонголမြန်မာဘာသာNederlandsनेपाली日本語NorskbokmålNorsknynorskOccitanOʻzbekcha/ўзбекчаਪੰਜਾਬੀپښتوPolskiPortuguêsRomânăRunaSimiРусскийसंस्कृतम्ScotsShqipසිංහලSimpleEnglishسنڌيSlovenčinaSlovenščinaSoomaaligaکوردیСрпски/srpskiSrpskohrvatski/српскохрватскиSundaSuomiSvenskaTagalogதமிழ்Татарча/tatarçaతెలుగుไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаاردوVènetoTiếngViệtWinaray吴语ייִדיש粵語中文 Editlinks